M06-History-500BC-1500

Human History 500BC to 1500 First Writing to after Columbus

Highlights 500 – 400 BC

521‑486 Darius I claims divine right to rule through Zoroastrianism, a belief system founded in the late sixth century by Iranian thinker Zarathustra. This new religion, popular among Persian aristocrats and elites gains a sizeable priesthood and a considerable following in Persian lands.

500 Pythagoreans hypothesize from mathematical principles that the Earth is a sphere.

500 The trireme is developed in Greece. It become the essential warship for both and Romans.

500 The catapult is developed in Italy.

500 Greek traveler and writer Hecataeus of Miletus details the geography and ethnography of Europe, northern Africa, and Asia in his Tour Around the World‑considered the first geography book.

500 Horse riding nomadic groups are firmly established on the Eurasian steppes. They live in tents that can be easily dismantled and transported.

500 Expansion continues on Persia's Road, which stretches about 1,600 ,from Sardis in western Anatolia to in western Persia. It is set up with 111 staging posts.

ca 500 The use of coins expands throughout most of Greece, except in Sparta, where ownership of silver or gold is unlawful.

500 The cities of Ionia, ethnically Greek but located in Asia Minor, throw off their Persian governors to begin the Persian Wars between the Greek city‑states and the Achaemenid Empire of Darius I of Persia.

490 Greek forces prevail at the Battle of Marathon, halting a Persian incursion into the Greek peninsula.

486 Darius I of Persia, having set up a system of administration that will last for centuries, dies at the age of 35. He 'is succeeded by his son Xerxes.

483 Xerxes, son and successor of Darius 1, prepares a huge incursion of perhaps 100,000 troops into the Greek mainland by constructing a floating bridge over the Hellespont, consisting of 676 ships lined up in two rows.

483 Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha, dies. His teachings, the core of which are known as the Four Noble Truths, go on to influence scores of adherents all over the world.

480 During a siege of Athens, the Persian uses arrows wrapped with fibers that been soaked in oil‑the first known projectile torches.

480 At King Xerxes' behest, Carthaginians attack Greek cities in Sicily where they are defeated at the Battle of Himera. Meanwhile, Persian forces are weakened by a small band of Spartans at the pass of Thermopylae.

ca 480 Celts of mainland Europe begin migrating to Britain in large numbers, greatly changing the makeup of its population.

479 Chinese thinker and educator Confucius dies. Having unsuccessfully attempted to become a powerful administrator in his own day, his teachings compiled in the Analects will go on to profoundly influence subsequent political and cultural traditions in China.449 Peace is struck between Persia and the Greek city‑states. It will last for most of the next century.

460 Herodotus embarks on tour of the known world, traveling to spots as far‑flung as Egypt, Aswan, Libya, Syria, Babylon, and Susa. Upon his return to Athens, he publicly recites his history of the war between the Greeks and Persians.

450 Iron tool technology spreads bringing an increase in agricultural surplus, trade, and population.

450 The first written code of law of Rome Twelve Tables, is placed in the Roman Forum

447 Athenian statesman Pericles commissions the sculptor Phidias to be artist director for the construction of the Parth It is finished in ten years and houses the Athena Parthenos, a 38 foot tall gold an ivory statue of the patron deity.

446 Athenian statesman Pericles avoids a possible war with Sparta and afterwards becomes the leading political voice in Athens.

445 Nehemiah returns to Jerusalem from captivity in Babylon. He becomes govern rebuilds the city walls, and institutes soc reforms. Together with Ezra, he oversees signing of the Jewish covenant to obey the laws of Moses, avoid mixed marriages and support the temple.

ca 440 At the height of his influence, Pericles broadens opportunities for participation in government, employs thousands in grand building projects, and strongly encourages the arts, sciences, and philosophy.

440 Greek mathematician Hippocrates of writes what is considered the first mathematical text book. It expounds on the proofs of geometry

436 A famine strikes Rome. It is so severe that thousands commit suicide by throwing themselves into the Tiber River.

431 The Second Peloponnesian War breaks out in Greece between the two main powers of the Delian League, Athens and Sparta.

430 Athenian statesman Pericles exhorts his countrymen and infantry to remain within the walls of Athens to avoid a battle on land with Sparta. Plague sweeps through the city, decimating his forces and souring his people's loyalty. Pericles dies soon afterwards.

404 After 27 years of a pitched civil war, the city of Athens falls to Sparta and its allies. Athens loses its fleet and its territories.

400s Pederasty between a young boy and his tutor is openly accepted in Greek society.

ca 400 Celtic tribes known collectively by the Romans as Gauls move across Europe into northern Italy, France, and Germany.

400s Rome consolidates its power in central Italy over Etruscans and neighboring peoples.

ca 400 The semi-nomadic Scythians of what is now Crimea in southern Russia develops saddles equipped with stirrups.

ca 400 Hippocrates of Cos begins compiling Corpus Hippocraticum, consisting of around 70 works presumably by various authors. It initiates the science of medicine with subjects ranging from pharmaceutical mixtures to a rejection of superstition.

Highlights 399—300 BC

399 Greek philosopher Socrates, having established the foundations of the Western philosophical tradition, is sentenced to death for impiety and corrupting the youth.396 The Olympic Games hold contests for trumpeters and heralds for the first time..

ca 387 Greek philosopher Plato founds the Academy, a school of philosophy in Athens.

ca 378 Greek philosopher Plato composes his dialogue, The Republic, in which he elaborates his notion of the ideal state.

Ca 375 The screw is invented in Italy.

ca 366 Greek mathematician and astronomer Eudoxus of Cnidus establishes a school in Cyzicus, Asia Minor. Here he works to formulate a systematic explanation of the motion of the sun, stars, moon, and planets nd the earth.

359 King Philip 11 takes power in the northern Greek state of Macedon. He immediately begins assembling a hardy, well trained army, equipping his infantry with the sarissa, a pike 13 to 21 feet long.

ca 350 A new strain of wheat is introduced into Egypt, from which bread can be easily produced. Combined with the Ptolemaic dynasty's support of agriculture, this development helps make Egypt the granary of Rome.

ca 350 The Apollo Belvedere, attributed to Greek sculptor Leochares, is made. It is widely considered the ideal form off masculine beauty in the ancient Mediterranean world.

350 Aristotle writes Conceming the Sky in which he correctly supports the theory that the earth is a sphere, and incorrectly supports the theory that the earth is the center of the universe.

347 Coins are introduced Into Rome; soon afterwards, the stores of the Roman Forum are replaced by banks.

342 Greek philosopher Aristotle, a disciple of Plato whose writings encompass topics from metaphysics to politics to biology to literature, travels to Macedon to become the tutor of young Alexander the Great.

338 Philip II of Macedon, after two decades of extending his empire, subdues all of Greece and sets his sights on Persia.

336 Alexander the Great, following the assassination of his father, Philip II, inherits his expanding empire at the age of 20.

336 King Philip 11 of Macedon is assassinated at the wedding of his daughter. His plans for an invasion of Persia fall to his son Alexander.

323 Alexander the Great, strategist, leader, and conqueror of a vast empire stretching from mainland Greece to parts of India, falls ill at a feast and dies a week later at the age of 33. Theories of his cause of death range from poisoning to cirrhosis of the liver.334 Alexander the Great, son of Philip II, invades Persia with his small but extremely well trained army of Macedonian soldiers.

ca 332 As they campaign through the Achaemenid Empire, Alexander's forces burn many Zoroastrian temples and kill many priests, or magi. Since doctrines of this faith are transmitted orally, many holy verses and hymns are lost to posterity, and the future of the religion is left uncertain.

331 Alexander destroys the Persian forces of the Achaemenid Empire at the Battle of Gaugamela. He then goes on to raze the grand imperial center, Persepolis.

330s Alexander the Great encourages the building of roads and cities throughout his empire, setting a pattern for the later Roman Empire.

312 Seleucus, Alexander's general and heir to his Asian Empire, enters Babylon and ushers in the Seleucid era, regaining Bactria from Chandragupta Maurya in 306.

312 The first major Roman road, the Via Appia is commissioned by censor Appius Claudius Caecus. It extends 162 miles from Rome to Tarenturn in southeastern Italy.

300s Carthage, a Phoenician colony in modern‑day Tunisia, dominates the politics and commerce of the western Mediterranean.

ca 300 Ptolemaic rule in Egypt fosters the widespread organization of agriculture and industry and establishes royal monopolies over the textile, salt making, and beer brewing industries.

ca 300 Prominent mathematician Euclid, teaching in Alexandria, expounds on the laws of geometry in his Elements.

ca 300 Peaches, citrons, and cotton move west from Iran, as does the water wheel.

ca 300 Rome becomes the dominant power on the Italian peninsula. Through the establishment of military colonies and equitable treatment of vanquished states, it secures a wide base of political and military authority.

ca 300 Greek navigator Pytheas is the first Greek to reach the British Isles and Scandinavia. In his book, On the Ocean, he describes tin mining in modern‑day Cornwall. His description of a land where the sea is solid and the sun never sets in summer is ridiculed in his own day.

300 Babylonian astronomer Berosus living on the Greek island of Cos, develops an early form of the sundial to tell time of day.

Alexander the Great inherited control of Greece from his father; King Philip II, in the fourth century BC and went on to seize the Persian Empire, extending from the eastern Mediterranean to the Indus River.

Greece rebelled against Darius and won support from Greeks elsewhere. Avid seafarers, the Greeks were divided into city-states including powerhouses as Athens and Sparta. Greeks sometimes fought each other and competed in marketplaces or athletically at festivals such as the Olympic Games. Thanks to their phonetic alphabet, many Greeks were literate.

Athena was the patron deity of Athens, which led the fight against Darius and repulsed Persian troops at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. According to legend, a messenger ran 26 miles from Marathon to Athens to proclaim victory before dropping dead. Darius's son Xerxes renewed the conflict. The Greeks were badly outnumbered, but Persian commanders had trouble supplying and coordinating their diverse forces from many countries. In 480 the Greeks shattered a huge but unwieldy Persian fleet at Salamis and went on to defeat the Persian army at Plataea a year later. Persian power and prestige sank to a new low due to intrigue and internal strife. Persia became a ripe target for the ambitious Alexander the Great.

Classical Greece 340-146 BC reached its height in Athens, "Athens is the school of Greece," boasted the Athenian leader Pericles. Among those were philosophers Socrates and Plato; playwrights Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides; the historian Thucydides; the physician Hippocrates; and the sculptor Phidias, whose work adorned the Parthenon, a temple overlooking the city. This burst of creativity coincided with the rise of democracy in Athens. Slaves had no rights, and female citizens were confined to separate women's quarters at home. By allowing male citizens to elect their leaders, Athens set a democratic standard not soon surpassed.

Athenians joined with Spartans to defeat the Persians, but afterward became bitter rivals. In Sparta, all men lived and trained together until age 30, which made them formidable foes in war that left victorious Spartan and Athenian-weaker. Around 340 BC Greece fell to King Philip II of Macedon. Macedonians had long traded with the Greeks and had adopted their language and culture. Philip's son, Alexander, was schooled in Greek literature and claimed descent from Achilles, hero of Homer's Iliad. Having inherited his father's army, he set out to make the Persian Empire his own.

Greeks applied their advances in geometry and mathematics to model the Cosmos. The work of these people were inner woven as teacher, student, friend, each building on the other. Pythagorus (582-500 BC} made an earth centered “Music of the Spheres” model and developed Pythagorean theorem. Plato (428-348 BC ) influence Greek model of Cosmos. Eudoxus (400-347 BC) friend of Plato, synthesized Greek, Egyptian & Babylonian data to make a mechanical model with earth at center plus eccentrics to account for wanderers. Aristotle (384-322 BC) modeled earth as round, because ship sails go out of sight, and at the center of a rotating sphere of stars at equal distance. Aristarchus (310-330 BC) Calculated the relative distance to the moon and sun. Euclid (300 BC) Compiled book called “Elements” which was used as a master text for centuries. Eratosthemes (276-194 BC) calculated in 200 BC the circumference of the Earth.

Ptolemy (127-151) compiled what was known, which was later transcribed by the Arabs, as the Almagust (great works) which was followed until Copernicus.

Left: Aristarchus 384-311 heliocentric system. Right: Aristarchus method of measuring the relative distances of sun and moon.

Eratosthene’s 200 BC measured size of earth. Observers could not explain the wandering stars that reversed motion. Hipparchus 160-127 epicycle solution to retrograde.

Eratosthene on a trip to Egypt in 200 BC noticed the angle of the suns shadow in a well up the Nile river was different than at a lower site. He recorded the angles and estimated the distance based on how far a camel travels per day and how many days the trip required. The result of his calculations below, proved to be remarkably accurate.

Alexander struck at the right time. Rebellions in Egypt and other provinces had weakened the Persians. They could muster a huge army, but the Macedonians were better organized and more loyal to their leader, who entered battle with them and was wounded several times. Within a decade, Alexander had conquered the Persians and all they possessed, from Egypt to the Indus River. He died in 323 BC at 33, a legendary figure of Homeric proportions. Alexander's empire was divided among his generals, who founded their own dynasties. Greece and Macedon were left to Antigonus; Egypt was left to Ptolemy; and the remainder was given to Seleucus, who became the new Persian emperor. Greeks spread throughout the conquered lands, disseminating their language and culture. Ptolemy built a new capital in Egypt at Alexandria, dedicated to Alexander, with a great library and museum. The city attracted scholars from various lands and embodied the cosmopolitan spirit of the larger Greek world.

Left Discus thrower; competing in Greek Olympic Games. Mid Parthenon Greece

Greek Democracy A democratic system of governance likely existed in hunter-gatherer societies-well before static communities, which became hierarchical societies. Following a century of aristocratic power mongering, Athenian statesman Cleisthenes in 508 BC garnered popular support for a series of reforms that would strip hereditary claims of their political clout. He encouraged participation in government by extending the right to participate to all free adult males born into townships. Townships chose representatives by lot to present their constituents' vote at a weekly assembly that met near Athens' acropolis. Though Athens was not a true democracy-only about 15 percent of the populace were adult male citizens, with women, immigrants, and slaves given no voice-it was a step up from tyrannical rule by a small group of aristocrats. A form of democracy continued in Athens until 146 BC, when conquering Romans annexed the city into their growing realm.

Library of Alexandria The Hellenistic Age was a blend between the Greek West and the Persian East. Greek merchants poured into recently founded cities, and a cultural interchange of unprecedented proportions ensued. Nowhere was this more true than in Alexandria Egypt, one of the most cosmopolitan cities of the ancient world, established by Alexander on the Nile delta in 332 BC. After the partitioning of Alexander's empire following his premature death, Alexandria came under the domain of the Ptolemaic dynasty, which soon established a research library and attendant "museum"-in the original sense of the word, a temple to the muses-the likes of which the world had not yet seen. Scholars converged from across the Mediterranean world on this burgeoning center of learning, which housed an estimated 400,000-700,000 scrolls, though some were acquired through questionable methods. Prominent geometrician Euclid came to work on his ground-breaking textbook, Elements. Physician and anatomist Herophilus came to research human physiology through dissection of cadavers, a practice usually banned elsewhere. Aristarchus of Samothrace set into collated form the various texts associated with Homer. Jewish scholars came to translate from Hebrew to Greek the Old Testament of the Bible.

Libraries subsequently were established throughout the Hellenistic world in emulation of Alexandria's center of scholarship, but until its destruction in the late fourth century CE by Christian Roman emperor Theophilus, who was attempting to do away with all remnants of paganism in his realm. The unexamined life is not worth living. Socrates

Left Etruscan sarcophagus Greek Theater Roman Theater

Etruscans Settled in hilltop agricultural villages between the Arno and Tiber Rivers of Italy, the Etruscans rose to swift prominence during the first millennium BC. The mineral wealth of the area-copper, tin, and iron-allowed for lively trade with neighbors and the seafaring Phoenicians. By the eighth century BC the villages grew into city-states with a stratified society.

The Greeks established colonies near the Etruscan realm and heavily influenced Etruscan arts and culture. Trade brought in luxury goods from Egypt, Syria, Anatolia, and Greece, while Etruscan influence spread north and south. In 616 Lucius Tarquinius Priscus became ruler of Rome. He established a dynasty that transformed Rome into an urban center, constructing monumental buildings, paving the forum, and establishing a sewer system. In 509 BC the Romans deposed the last Etruscan ruler and formed a republic, and Etruria became part of Rome.

Highlights 299 – 200 BC

297 The world's first lighthouse, the Pharos of Alexandria, begins to be constructed. The light of a fire at its base is reflected out to sea by bronze mirrors.

ca 295 Herophilus, working in Alexandria, practices human dissection, a research technique banned elsewhere. He recognizes the brain as the seat of intelligence.

280 The Alexandria Museum and Libra are founded. These centers of classical learning will foster scientific and literary scholarship for centuries.

ca 275 The first five books of the Old Testament are translated from Hebrew to Greek by scholars in Alexandria.

ca 280 Alexandria becomes the bureaucratic center of the Ptolemaic empire. Greeks, Macedonians, Phoenicians, Jews, Arabs, and Babylonians migrate through its harbor, which can hold up to 1,200 ships at a time.

ca 280 Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos writes On the Size and Distances of the Sun and the Moon, in which he employs Euclid's geometric method to estimate the distance of the sun and the moon from the earth. He also insists that the earth revolves continually around the sun and rotates daily its own axis.

280 The Colossus of Rhodes is constructed. This bronze statue of the sun god Helios stands 100 feet tall at the mouth of Rhodes harbor as a symbol of freedom of trade.

ca 260 Greek anatomist Erasistratus of Chios, considered the father of physiology, explains the functions of the heart's valves.

275 Following Alexander the Great's death, his chief generals carve up his new empire into three large realms: the Seleucid, including most of the former Achaemenid Empire in Persia; the Ptolemaic, including most of Egypt; and the Antigonid, including Greece, Macedon, and nearby islands.

264 Originating from an Etruscan funereal tradition, the first gladiatorial games are held in Rome. Along with chariot races, wild animal hunts, and mock naval battles, they will become wildly popular in the Roman world for the next few centuries.

230 Mathematician Apollonius of Perga, an early contributor to the field of mathematical astronomy, introduces the terms paraboia, ellipse, and hyperbola from his detailed study of the cross sections of a cone. He works out of Alexandria, Egypt.

ca 230 Greek mathematician and inventor Archemedes, working in Syracusa, Sicily, creates all manner of military instruments using levers and pulleys, comes to an approximation of pi, and finds the ratio between the volume of a cylinder to that of an inscribed sphere, the so called golden ratio.

225 The Colossus of Rhodes, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, is toppled by an earthquake.

218 Carthaginlan general Hannibal, at the outbreak of the Second Punic War, crosses the Alps into northern Italy with 40,000 men and 37 elephants. His successful invasion threatens Rome.

202 Roman forces under General Scipio Africanus Major defeat the amassed Carthaginian forces under General Hannibal at Zama, in modern day Tunisia. The peace agreement forces Carthage to cede to Rome most of its fleet as well as its holdings in Spain.

ca 200 The Riace bronzes, incredibly realistic Greek sculptures are lost to sea in the Strait of Messina. They will be recovered in 1972.

ca 200 The horseshoe is invented by nomads of the Eurasian steppes. This technology soon spreads to the Roman world.

ca 200 The Romans invent concrete.

ca 200 The astrolabe is developed in Alexandria. It is used to chart the positions and altitude of the stars.

Fifty percent of Hannibal’s elephant equipped army were lost crossing the Alps

Hannibal As a young man in Carthage, Hannibal once asked his father to take him along on a military campaign in Spain. It is said that his father agreed, on one condition: that Hannibal swear never to become an ally of Rome. Hannibal more than held up his end of the bargain, eventually using his military genius to challenge the power of Rome, and very nearly succeeding.

Commander in chief of his own army by age 26, Hannibal pushed Rome into the Second Punic War against Carthage. He then amassed a force of about 40,000 troops, as well as 37 African war elephants, and embarked on an invasion of northern Italy through the Alps that would become legendary. When told it was impossible to cross the Alps with elephants, Hannibal responded, "We will either find a way, or make one. " They did, though the feat cost Hannibal half his army. Hannibal's army crosses the Alps.

Hannibal went on to score victories throughout Italy and seriously threatened to conquer Rome. But after the death of his brother and a failed alliance with the Macedonians, Hannibal returned to Mrica, where Roman forces were threatening his native city. Carthage was taken and Rome's hegemony in the Mediterranean was firmly established for the next 500 years.

Highlights 199 – 100 BC

196 A description of the coronation of Egyptian Pharaoh Ptolemy V is inscribed three times on the Rosetta Stone, once in Greek, once in Egyptian hieroglyphs, and once in dernotic script.

ca 193 The Aphrodite of Melos, better known to posterity as the Venus de Milo, is produced. Nothing is known of its sculptor.

189 Roman forces defeat Seleucid ruler Antiochus III and establish Roman Asia.

182 Hannibal, in exile in Asia Minor, commits suicide rather than submit to the Romans.

ca 171 Soldier and conqueror Mithradates I assumes the throne of the Parthian Empire. He will soon rule over lands stretching from India to the Mediterranean.

164 Judah Maccabee reclaims the Jerusale temple for Jewish worship, inaugurating the feast of Hanukkah.

151 Egyptian geographer Claudius Ptolemy in his Geography sets out the whole of the world as it is known to the Romans. It stretches from modern day Iceland to Sri Lanka, with broad swaths of unknown lands to the east and south.

146 Rome destroys Carthage and establishes the province of Africa. Rome is now the dominant political and economic force in the Mediterranean.

144 Rome's highest and longest aqueduct, the Aqua Marcia, is built.

ca 140 Greek philosopher Crates of Mallus, living and working in Asia Minor, develops the first known globe.

129 Greek scientist and astronomer Hipparchus of Bithynia creates the earliest known catalog of stars, using an early form of the astrolabe at his observatory on the Greek island of Rhodes. He documents the brightness and position of nearly 850 stars.

122 Mount Etna on the island of Sicily erupts.

ca 100 The art of glassblowing is refined to a highly advanced level by Syrian craftsmen

Highlights 99-0 BC

92 Roman Emperor Domitlan begins the wide spread execution of Christians for not adhering to the imperial cult.

ca 90 Roman writer and Scholar Marcus Terentius Varro proposes the idea that invisible particles which enter the body through the nose and mouth can cause illness and disease. This is the first known postulation of germ theory.

88 The Social War In Italy ends with Rome granting citizenship to allies on the peninsula.

87 Gallus Marius, in exile since his political rival, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, took power following the Social War, marches on Rome. He places the city under military occupation and begins a massacre of his political enemies.

ca 85 Christians are expelled from the Jewish faith

83 Following Marius's death, Sulla marches on Rome and begins his own purging of political enemies. In short time, he brings about the execution of nearly 10,000 Romans.

83 The remainder of the deteriorating Seleucid Empire, a holdover from the conquests of Alexander the Great, is conquered by Roman forces. This brings Syria and portions of Asia Minor into Rome's growing dominion.

80 An epidemic of anthrax runs through the Roman Empire, killing thousands of animals and people and reaching the western border of the Han empire in China.

ca 80 An astronomical calculator incorporating 31 interlocking wheels is produced on the Greek island of Antikythera.

79 Mount Vesuvius erupts, burying the nearby cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae under many feet of ash and pumice.

77 Roman jack‑of‑all‑trades Pliny the Elder completes his Natural History, a compilation of writings and remarks that runs of observable phenomena.

73 Escaped slave Spartacus leads a rebel army in Italy that requires eight Roman legions to quell.

72‑73 Roman forces put an end to the Great Jewish Revolt in Judaea by seizing and overcoming the remaining holdouts of Jewish rebels, some of whom are in the hilltop fortress known as Masada.

ca 70 Work on the Gospels, accounts of Jesus of Nazareth's life and teachings, is undertaken by members of the new Christian faith.

ca 70 Roman Emperor Vespasian begins construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum, over the top of Nero’s former Golden House. With a spectator capacity, it is equipped with underground passageways and trap doors.

It can even be flooded to host mock naval battles.

69 Following Emperor Nero's forced suicide and the end of the Julio‑Claudian line of succession, generals across the Roman Empire vie for the imperial title. At the end of the "year of the four emperors " Vespasian, a commander fresh conquests in Judaea, establishes the Flavian dynasty.

66 After Greeks in Jerusalem desecrate a synagogue as Roman troops look on, the first Jewish‑Roman War begins, with the Jewish high priest leading a successful attack on the Roman garrison. In the end, the skirmish results in the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple by Roman troops under Vespasian.

64 Fire destroys half of Rome. Emperor Nero blames the Christian community; meanwhile, he undertakes an opulent imperial building project, his Golden House, on the ashes.

63 The Jewish state shrinks when Roman general Pompey conquers Palestine and storms Jerusalem.

ca 62 Mathematician and inventor Heron of Alexandria, stressing practicality over pure theory describes mechanical labor saving devices such as a steam engine, a water clock, a water fountain, and an odometer. A world highly dependent on slave labor pays him little heed.

ca 60 Boudicca, queen of the Celtic Iceni tribe in Britain, is defeated by Roman forces. The Romans later reduce the political and legal status of Celtic women.

58 Galus Julius Caesar begins his conquests of Gaul, modern day France. By the end of the decade, he brings a large number of these Celtic groups into the growing sphere of the Roman world. Through these victories and his subsequent writings, On The Gallic War, he also gains greater popular support in Rome.

53 The Battle of Carrhae, during which the Parthian cavalry routs a Roman army in Mesopotamia, prevents the Romans from moving farther east.

51 Cleopatra comes to the throne in Egypt. In 48 she meets Julius Caesar, marries him, and has his son; later she marries Marc Antony after having twins by him.

ca 50 Christian convert turned missionary Paul of Tarsus begins efforts to bring non Jews into the Christian community. He travels throughout the eastern Roman Empire, corresponding with converts in epistles on matters of faith

49 Political maneuvers in Rome come to a head when Julius Caesar marches his troops across the Rubicon River into Italy. By 46 B.C.E., he is named dictator for life. By 44, he is assassinated by a group of senators.

46 As dictator, Julius Caesar centralizes control of the Roman army, extends citizenship to the provinces, begins ambitious building projects to employ the urban poor, and reworks the Roman calendar.42 Caesar is recognized by the Roman state as a god, initiating the imperial cult that will characterize Roman society for centuries.

46-47 The Mesopotamian calendar of readjusted, only a month off after 800 years.

40s Roman Emperor Claudius creates an imperial bureaucracy of professional administrators, composed largely of former slaves.

--0--

Rome Empire expanded from a small Italian city-state to a world power not just by conquering other societies but by assimilating them. Romans granted many of those they subdued citizenship and won their cooperation and loyalty, freeing Roman troops to seize more territory or crush rebellions. Roman citizenship gave people legal protection, including the right to confront their accusers in court and maintain their innocence until proven guilty. But it did not give them democratic rights, for Rome was never a democracy. After throwing off Etruscan rule in 509 BC, Romans organized themselves as a republic with a dominant Senate for patricians, or aristocrats, and a subordinate assembly for plebeians, or commoners. Reforms in this system increased the political power of plebeians, but social tensions persisted and gradually undermined the republic.

Roman soldiers Julius Caesar Roman aqueduct

The political system functioned well enough while Roman power was confined to Italy but came under severe stress after Rome conquered Carthage, an expansive Phoenician city-state on the North African coast. After withstanding an invasion by the Carthaginian general Hannibal, Romans struck back and leveled Carthage in 146 BC. Roman generals gained great power and prestige from such triumphs abroad and began intervening in domestic political disputes between wealthy landowners employing slaves seized in Roman conquests and dispossessed farmers who demanded land reform.

The most imposing of those generals was Julius Caesar, who conquered the Celts in Gaul, in what is now France, and returned to Rome to seize power in 49 BC. As dictator, he took land from the wealthy and gave it to veterans loyal to him. Senators angered by his policies and his refusal to yield power assassinated him, hoping to restore the republic. Instead, they unleashed a tumultuous civil war in which they were crushed by Caesar's nephew Octavian, who then clashed with his co-ruler, Mark Antony. By defeating Antony and his ally, Queen Cleopatra of Egypt, the last ruler of the Ptolemy dynasty, Octavian won firm control of the Mediterranean world. He took the title Augustus Caesar and reigned supreme as emperor.

Augustus and later Roman emperors were cult figures, worshiped at shrines. Most people under their authority recognized many gods and tolerated that imperial cult. Jews rejected other gods, however, and some hoped for a messiah, or savior, who would end Roman rule and restore the kingdom of Israel. Around 30 C.E., a Jewish visionary named Jesus who promised to restore God's kingdom on earth was condemned and crucified by Roman authorities who feared he might incite rebellion. His disciples called him Christ, meaning "anointed one," or messiah, and said that he rose from the grave and joined God in heaven. Christianity was inspired mainly by Jewish scriptures, which became part of the Christian Bible, but it was also influenced by Zoroastrianism, which originated in Persia and taught that righteous souls would avoid the torments of hell and enter paradise.

Christians faced persecution as Roman power expanded under such strong-willed emperors as Vespasian, who sacked Jerusalem in 70 C.E. to end a rebellion there; and Trajan, who challenged defiant Parthians in the east and extended the Roman Empire to Mesopotamia before he died in 117. Later emperors consolidated those gains by expanding the network of Roman roads; building defensive barriers such as Hadrian's Wall in Britain; and founding or expanding provincial cities like Lyon in Gaul, which grew to resemble Rome, with fountains and baths fed by aqueducts, and coliseums or circuses to entertain the masses. The poet Juvenal scoffed that Romans who once took an active part in government now cared only for "bread and circuses." But the attractions of urban life helped transform conquered people into grateful Roman citizens. In time, some leading provincial citizens like the North African Septimus Severus became Roman emperors.

Highlights 100-199 AD

ca 100 Heron of Alexandria sets up a series of gears to perform simple calculations, a kind of computer that is ages ahead of it’s time.

ca 100 Parthians develop the liwan, a large central arch, and a dome supported on squinches, both of which become characteristic forms of Islamic architecture.

ca 100 Romans expand their system of roads so they can supply their border forts and move troops more efficiently.

ca 100 Mines In Britain supply the Roman Empire with lead and tin.

ca 100 Slaves account for as much as a third of the population of the Roman empire.

ca 100 Men from the provinces join the Roman army in order to gain citizenship and learn a trade.

ca 100 Successful chariot drivers become popular heroes in Rome.

101 Roman Emperor Trajan further extends the boundaries of the Roman Empire beyond the Danube River into Dacia.

ca 100 Roman historian Tacitus writes a history of Rome sharply critical of the emperors following Augustus.

ca 150 Greek philosopher and theologian Justin Martyr reconciles Platonic philosophy with Christian teachings and rejects Greek mythology.

161 Marcus Aurelius becomes emperor of Rome following the death of his adoptive father Antoninus Pius. Though he espouses the Stoic philosophy throughout his emperorship, he is almost constantly at war.

ca 150 Goths arrive on the Danubian frontier of the Roman Empire. Although they at first raid the empire heavily, forcing Roman forces to eventually abandon Dacia, they also adopt many Roman laws and customs.

180 The population of the Roman Empire declines significantly following a 15‑year outbreak of smallpox that even claims Emperor Marcus Aurelius. This not only decreases trade, but also contracts the empire's economy into more regionalized markets.

ca 185 The New Testament is canonized under the leadership of Irenaeus, and an early Christian creed, called the rule of faith, is promulgated. Tertullian of Africa writes an apologia for the faith; Clement and Origen, bishops of Alexandria, write theological works "Acts of the martyrs" also proliferate.

Highlights 200-299 AD

ca 200 The Kingdom of Axum, centered in Ethiopia, grows into the largest market for foreign goods in sub‑Saharan Africa. It dominates commerce on the African coast of the Red Sea and trades with Alexandria and beyond.

201 Greek physician Galen dies at the age of 71. In his lifetime he was a prolific thinker and writer, perhaps even developing an early form of brain surgery.

203 Vibea Perpetua a young Roman woman, writes an account of her imprisonment for being a Christian. She is later martyred.

217 The Immense baths of Caracalla in Rome are completed. Equipped with an Olympic sized swimming pool room, a cold and hot pool and numerous exercise courts, it can accommodate up to 10,000 people at once.

224 Already weakened by internal rebellion, the Parthian Empire is brought down by the Sassanids of Persia. They will rule Mesopotamia from their capital at Ctesiphon, on the Tigris River near modern day Baghdad, for the next 400 years.

ca 224 The cultivation of eastern crops such as rice, sugarcane, and eggplant is introduced into Iran by merchants of the newly formed Sassanid Empire, who trade extensively with peoples to both the East

226 The first king of the Sassanid Empire In Persia, King Ardashir I, makes Zoroastriani the state religion. Zoroastrian priests, known as magi, begin to compile the remnants of their scriptures, previously transmitted only orally, into a single volume of five parts, the Avesta. New adherents flock to the religion.

229 Historian Dio, Cassius retires from politics to finish his History of Rome, an effort comprising 80 books, many of which are still in existence.

ca 250 The prophet Man! preaches a new ascetic religion that blends elements of Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Buddhism into a cosmopolitan message.

256 An epidemic ravages Alexandria. In its wake, many survivors are drawn into the Christian church.

259 A first wave of barbarian incursions into the Roman Empire occurs as Germanic tribes such as the Burgundians and the Alemans sweep into the regions of Romanized Gaul.

ca 265 A five year epidemic of plague, likely transmitted via Silk Road, afflicts Rome and much of its empire.

270 Plotinus dies, having founded the school of Neoplatonism, which dominates philosophical thinking for centuries and affects Christian and, to a lesser degree, Islamic theological thought

286 Roman Emperor Diocletian splits his empire into two administrative units. He rules the eastern half from Nicomedia in Asia Minor and appoints his soldier Maximian to rule as co emperor from Milan in northern Italy.

293 Roman Emperor Diocletian sets up the tetrarchy, a system of deputy emperorship with an Augustus ruling in either half of the Roman Empire and a Caesar assigned to him as collaborator and successor.

ca 299 A treaty is struck between Persia and Rome, bringing peace to their frontier. Romans build forts and roads for the frontier defense system; Sassanians establish buffer states and turn their armies north to the Caucasus and Central Asia. Greek culture flourishes in Iran for the last time.

Highlights 300 – 399 AD

ca 300 Despite intensive, yet sporadic, imperial persecutions, Christian communities flourish in the Middle East and North Africa, as well as in even more distant locales.

300s The Hephthalites, a nomadic people from northern China also known as the White Huns, take the state of Bactria, centered in modern day Afghanistan, from which they prepare to mount an offensive into India.

303 Roman Empeor Diocletian issues four edicts of non toleration of Christianity. Thus begins the most severe period of Christian martyrdom.

312 Roman general Constantine I marches on Rome and at the Battle of Milvian Bridge usurps the imperial title from the last fully pagan emperor, his brother‑in‑law Maxentius.

313 The Edict of Milan is issued by eastern Roman Emperors Constantine and Licinius, confirming official toleration by the Roman Empire of Christianity and all other religion

Ca 313 Roman Emperor Constantine I under takes construction on a number of impressively ornate basilicas in Rome, including the Bacilica of St. Peter and of St. Paul.

ca 320 The manufacture of textiles is begun in Britain for export to the rest of the Roman Empire.

325 Roman Emperor Constantine I embraces Christianity and institutionalizes the faith throughout the Roman Empire. To settle conflicts regarding church doctrine, he calls bishops to the first ecumenical council, located at Nicaea near Constantinople. At this council, the Nicene Creed is developed, specifying the doctrinal relationship of Jesus to God.

330 Constantine I dedicates the ancient Greek city of Byzantium as his new capital. Fashioning it a "new Rome," he renames it Constantinople. It is located on the European side of the Sea of Marmora, the entrance to the Black Sea.

ca 350 Following its imperial sanction, the Christian Church organizes itself into a top to bottom hierarchy of ranking officials.

358 After continued raids and increasing pressure on Its borders, the Roman Empire is compelled to abandon the region of modern day Belgium to the Franks.

361 The city of Constantinople passes regulations requiring physicians to receive a license in order to practice.

376 The Huns, a nomadic group of people from eastern Asia, arrive on the frontier of the Roman Empire after defeating Goths living on the Danube River. Over the course of the next seven decades, they will carve out an empire of their own in central Europe.

378 Roman infantry forces led by Emperor Valens are annihilated by Visigothic and Ostrogothic horsemen at the Battle of Adrianople in modern day Turkey.

380 Roman General turned emperor Theodosius I makes Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. He then begins a purging of all things pagan, destroying libraries and temples and abolishing the Olympic games.

ca 390 Following Roman Emperor Theodosius I's outlawing of paganism, crowds destroy the temple of Serapis in Alexandria and, along with it, Alexandria's great library.

Highlights 400– 499 AD

405 The Rhine River in central Europe freezes over in the winter, facilitating the entry into the Roman Empire by a great number of Vandals, Alans, and other migratory groups.

406 Groups of Vandals and other Germanic people, led by King Gunderic, invade and devastate much of the Roman province of Gaul.

407 Germanic tribes moving into northwest Europe bring with them the manufacture of butter and the cultivation of crops such as rye, oats, and hops.

410 Visigothic forces led by Alaric capture and sack Rome, having laid multiple sieges to it over the previous year. Though it has not been the capital of the empire for over a century, this represents the symbolic fall of the western Roman Empire. The invaders spare the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul.

410 During Alaric's multiple sieges of Rome, many Germanic slaves in the city join his side. In fact, Alaric's forces only enter Rome when a slave opens the gates for them.

415 The Visigoths move out of Italy and into southern Gaul and Spain, where they remain with their capital at Toledo for the next three centuries.429 The Vandals invade Africa from Spain, capturing Carthage by 439.

430s Roman Emperor Theodosius II expands the triple walls of Constantinople and builds huge cisterns for water, making the city almost impossible to conquer.

438 Jews are barred from public office in the Roman Empire.

ca 400 Rev Ash! is one of the prime movers in the compilation of the Babylonian Talmud, a commentary on the Mishnah. At the same time, rabbis in Palestine compile the Palestinian Talmud, completed around 425

442 The Vandals, a Germanic group of migratory people, settle finally in North Africa with Carthage as their capital. The Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III recognizes their independence, yet Vandals continue to harass the crumbling Eastern Roman Empire.

441 Under the command of King Attila, the Huns launch a massive assault on the Roman Empire, invading first modern‑day Hungary, then the Balkan region, then Gaul and northern Italy. Nearly unstoppable, they wreak havoc until Attila's death in 453.

455 Vandals. led by King Galseric, invade Italy from North Africa, even taking Rome and plundering it of many works of art.

ca 455 After a number of attacks by germanic groups, much of northern Italy is devastated. Towns are walled in, farms are left vacant, and the population shrinks exponentially.

476 German chieftain Odoacer deposes the final western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and proclaims himself king. Though a Roman system of administration persists for a time, the western half of the Roman Empire is extinguished.

ca 476 Angle, Saxon, and Jute invasions of England force many Celtic inhabitants to migrate across the English channel to Brittany, France.

493 Clovis, King of the Franks, is baptized a Christian at the urging of his wife, Clothilde. He goes on to expand his reign throughout Gaul and lays the foundations for the most powerful kingdom of early medieval western Europe.

493 After assassinating Odoacer, Theodoric establishes an Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy with his capital at Ravenna..

Gladiators Coliseum in Rome

During the third century, Roman power declined. Here as in China, epidemics introduced along trade routes ravaged the population and disrupted harvest and shipments of grain on which cities depended, the empire weakened, Christianity grew stronger by offering those in distress charity and the promise of eternal life. In the early fourth century, the emperor Constantine embraced Christianity and moved his capital from Rome to Byzantium on the Bosporus Strait. Known as Constantinople, that new capital became the seat of the Byzantine Empire, which endured while the old Roman Empire to the west crumbled. In the fifth century, Huns advancing from Central Asia into eastern Europe displaced Vandals, Visigoths, and other nomadic peoples, who then over whelmed Italy. Rome fell in 476, but the invaders absorbed and perpetuated many elements of Roman culture, including Christianity.

No walls could fend off such far-reaching agents of destruction and change. They affected Europe as well and contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire and the spread of Christianity.

Boundaries as of 476 AD: Angles, Goths, Huns, Jutes, Ostrogoths, Picts, Saxons, Scots, Vandals, Visigoths.

Spread Christianity Dark shade to 325 AD Light shade to 600 AD

Byzantine Empire at it’s height 565 AD

Muhammad of Mecca in 610 has revelation, rejected goes to Medina where accepted, win’s battle with Mecca award promise to those killed works. By 750 Islam spreads to max