W-NG03-EvsT-250KBC-500BC

BCE = Before Common Era (was bc) :: CE = Common Era (was ad)

Extracted from National Geographic “Concise History of the World”

Left column: MA=Middle East & Africa, E=Europe, AO=Asia & Oceania, A=Americas

	PREHISTORY‑3000 B.C.E
MA	120,000‑90,000 Heavy rainfall makes the Sahara in Africa habitable for humans. 75,000 Glaciation turns Africa's Sahara arid; it becomes a nearly impassable desert. 12,000 Abundant crops of wild cereals grow in the Fertile Crescent, which ranges from Egypt to Iraq. 8000‑7700 Wheat and barley are cultivated in the Fertile Crescent. Irrigation agriculture begins ca 5000; cattle are domesticated. 6500 Ugarit in modern Syria is settled. 5000 Farming spreads into the Indo‑Iranian borderlands. 4,500,000 Hominids begin to appear. 250,000 Modern humans (Homo sapiens) emerge in Africa. 100,000 Modern humans, subsisting as hunter‑gatherers, migrate to the Middle East 8000 Jericho in present‑day Israel becomes large city. 7250 Catal Huiyuk, a town in Anatolia (Turkey), reaches a population of 6,000. 3200 Sumer, the first civilization, emerges between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. 3100 Menes unites Upper and Lower Egypt. 45,000 The flute, the oldest known instrument, is used in North Africa. 24,000 Rock paintings at the Apollo site in Namibia, Africa, can be dated to this period. 4000 People along the coast of Ghana, West Africa, develop pottery. 3760 The Jewish calendar counts the dates from this year on. 3500 Sumerians invent a form of writing and numbering called cuneiform, incised in clay, to keep track of trade transactions and taxes. 3100 Hieroglyphic script appears in Egypt. 100,000 Middle Stone Age flake‑tool technology is established in Africa. 35,000 A simple counting device is invented in South Africa. 6200 Copper smelting and textile manufacture begins in Catal Huyuk, Anatolia, 4000 Egyptians begin to use a sail on their Nile River boats. 3800 The earliest bronze work is produced in the Middle East, using copper and arsenic. 3500 The potter's wheel and the kiln are invented in Mesopotamia, modern‑day Iraq. 3200 The Sumerians, tribes settled between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (called Mesopotamia by the Greeks, meaning "land between the rivers", develop the first civilization. Their fertile valley produces a surplus of food early on, leading to population growth. Cities like Nippur and Ur develop, with leaders organizing large‑scale construction projects such as public buildings, temples, and defensive walls. Religion is organized and laws are established, which allow this culture to develop rapidly into a stratified society.
E	230,000 Neanderthals‑Homo erectus, but not yet Homo sapiens‑appear in Europe. 40,000 Modern humans‑Homo sapiens‑arrive in Europe. They live alongside Neanderthals, but don't seem to interbreed. 28,000 The last Neanderthals become extinct in southern Spain. 7000 Farming tribes wander from Anatolia into Greece and farther west into Europe 5400‑4500 The Bandkeramilk culture of farmers and potters develops in central Europe. 32,000‑14,000 Humans express them selves with cave art in southern Europe. Cave paintings in Lascaux, France, and Altamira, Spain, in particular, have artistic merit. 5000 Early pottery decorated with linear bands, for which the Bandkeramik culture is named, is found throughout Transclanubia‑western Hungary and adjacent regions along the Danube. 4300 The first megalithic tombs are built in western Europe. 26,000 Hunter-gatherers in central Europe build houses roofed with clay. 16,000 On the steppes of Russia, some shelters are built of mammoth bones. 6000 Along the Danube in central Europe, people build sturdy huts made of poles thatched with grasses. Plaster floors hold sunken fireplaces. 12,000 Social hierarchies are evident in varied European burial practices.
AO	30,000 Humans move across the land bridge from Korea to Japan. 10,000 Rising ocean waters separate Aus tralia and New Guinea, Korea and Japan. 10,000 Agriculture develops along the Yellow River and other sites in China. 7000‑5000 Rice cultivation is developed in Southeast Asia and southern China. 6500 Farming begins in the Indus Valley in modern‑day Pakistan and western India. 6000 Millet is grown in the Yellow River Valley in China. 95,000 Homo floresiensis, a small species of Homo erectus, exists in Indonesia. 75,000 Modern humans arrive in Southeast Asia and China. 60,000 Modern humans reach New Guinea and Australia by boat. 35,000 Aboriginal hunter‑gatherers establish traditions in Australia. 35,000 Hunting tribes move deep into Central Asia. 28,000 The Solomon Islands are settled. 45,000 The first rock art in Australia is dated to this time. 18,000 The first sculptures are crafted in Asia. 12,000 Jornon hunter‑gatherers in Japan make the first pottery. Jornon means "cord pattern" and describes the ceramic ware. 12,000‑8000 Ceramic arts begin in Japan. 5000 Yangshao culture in China produces fine, painted pottery with geometric patterns, and designs of animals and humans. 8000 The boomerang is invented in Australia. 4000 Bronze objects, made of a combination of 90 percent copper and 10 percent tin, are produced in Thailand. This is the first use of bronze worldwide.
A	16,000 Humans cross the Bering Strait and reach the far north of the Americas. Indigenous Americans live along side. 14,000 Humans begin to arrive in South America; they reach modern day Chile by about 11,000. 11,500 The Clovis culture begins in the Great Plains of North America, the Cochise in the Southwest. By 5000 the Folsom culture replaces the Clovis culture. The Chumash inhabit California. 3750 Permanent fishing villages are established in the Chilca Valley in Peru. 3500 Haida culture begins in Canada. 4000 Pottery first comes into use in Guyana, South America. 3372 The first date In the Maya calendar, as the later civilization calculates back to the beginning of time. 9000 Flint arrowheads and spear points, known as Clovis points, are made by the Clovis culture in North America. 8000 The Folsom people develop sophisticated tools, enabling them to clean animal hides and make effective weapons. 3500 The discovery of corn cobs in New Mexico suggests that the Cochise culture was influenced by Mesoamericans. 10,000 The last world wide glacerization ends and humans successfully adapt. 9,000 The Great Bison Belt grass lands reach from Alaska to the Gulf of Mexico.
	3000 – 2500 B.C.E.
MA	ca 3000 Sumer, the first civilization, grows in power as Nippur and other city‑states begin to form a political federation. ca 3000 Phoenicians settle the Syrian coast. ca 3000 The Hittites migrate into Anatolia. ca 3000 Camels are domesticated in the Middle East. ca 3000 Sorghum is first cultivated in Ethiopia. ca 3000 Sumerians develop a complex society with urban centers built around multilevel temples, known as ziggurats, presided over by priests. 2685 The sophisticated arts of Sumer include the Standard of Ur, a two‑sided mosaic of shell, lapis lazuli, and carnelian, depicting daily life at peace and war. 2650 The pyramid of Djoser is built as a royal tomb, the first of many, culminating in the massive pyramids at Giza. They are a manifestation of the pharaoh's power as a divine ruler to marshal enormous resources for such building projects. ca 2900 The Deluge or Great Flood described in the Bible and Sumerian epics may have happened at this time. ca 2600 Egyptians trade along the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, importing cedar wood from Lebanon and gold, ebony, ivory, cattle, and slaves from Africa, while exporting linen, gold, leather, wheat, and lentils. 2700 King Enmebaragis! of Kish in northern Sumer engages in wars against neighbors in the east, the Elamites of present‑day Iran. 2675 Gligamesh rules as the Sumerian king of Uruk. 2660 Pharaoh Sanakht founds Egypt's third dynasty, beginning the Old Kingdom period. 3000 The Egyptians 'invent papyrus, a fore runner of paper, made from reeds. 3000 The abacus‑a calculator using rods beads‑is in use in the Middle East and adopted in the Mediterranean. 3000 Bronze, made from copper and tin, is invented in the area of Mesopotamia. 2700 The Sumerians develop a calendar of 354 days 2550 Soldiers In Ur, Sumeria, use shields. ca 3000 The city of Kish and other northern Sumerian cities are largely inhabited by Semitic people‑Akkadians‑whereas the south is populated by Sumerians. Northern Mesopotamia is the land of the Hurrians, and southwest Iran is populated by Elamites. 2625 Pharaoh Sneferu builds three major and two minor pyramids, the largest surpassing in size the Djoser
E	ca 3000 Danubian cultures flourish in central Europe. ca 3000 So‑called Lake Dwellers settle in communities along lakes in an alpine arc from France to Slovenia. ca 3000 The Bronze Age, called the Early Minoan Period, begins on Crete. ca 3000 Milled grain forms an important part of central European diet. ca 3000 Megalithic temples are constructed on the island of Malta. ca 2700 The horse is domesticated in the Ukraine. 3000 Copper is mined in Cyprus and exported throughout the Mediterranean. 2800 Stonehenge is built in Wiltshire, and, a circular earthwork 320 feet in diameter with 56 pits along the edge, known the Aubrey holes. The site may have been as an observatory, to follow the positions of the sun and the moon. ca 3000 Craft specialization and gender division of labor develop in eastern Europe. ca 3000 Chambered barrows, also known as passage graves, are built throughout England, Ireland, and northern France.
AO	ca 3000 Neolithic villages along the Indus River of modern‑day Pakistan and western India develop into large cities. ca 3000 Austronesian people migrate from Taiwan to the Philippines. ca 3000 Village life is established in China along the Yellow River, the Yangtze River Delta, and the southeast coast. ca 3000 China cultivates soybeans. ca 3000 People in New Guinea begin to cultivate yams and taro roots and domesticate pigs and chickens. ca 2700 Tea is in use in China. ca 3000 The plow is first used in China. The abacus, in use in the Middle East, is also developed in China. 3000 Cotton fabric is first woven by the Harappans of the Indus Valley. 2700 China begins to cast bronze objects and to weave silk.
A	ca 3000 Archaic people settle in the Great Lakes region of North America. Others settle near Poverty Point, Louisiana. ca 3000 Agricultural villages begin to appear in Mesoamerica‑the region between central Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador. ca 3000 Fishing villages become established along the Peruvian coast of South America. 3000 Meso-americans begin intensive cultivation of maize, beans, chilies, avocados, and squash and other gourds. 2800 Farming groups in the Amazon region form villages.
	2500 – 2000 BCE
MA	ca 2500 Semitic Canaanite tribes settle on the coast of Palestine. 2334‑2279 King Sargon of Akkad conquers Sumer, Syria, and Elam (southwest Iran), and establishes the first empire. 21L93 The Akkadian Empire collapses. 2180 The Old Kingdom in Egypt ends in political and social chaos. 2112 Ur‑Nammu builds the Sumerian Empire in Mesopotamia, centered at Ur. 2080 Mentuhotep 11 of Egypt reunites the country, beginning the Middle Kingdom. ca 2300 Sumerian merchants travel across the Arabian Sea to trade with the Harappans of the Indus Valley, carrying sesame oil, woolen textiles, leather goods, and jewelry in exchange for copper, ivory, pearls, and semiprecious stones. In other trade they procure silver from Anatolia, cedars from Lebanon, copper from Arabia, gold from Africa, and tin from Iran. 2180 Drought disrupts the seasonal flooding of the Nile, causing famine and anarchy. ca 2500 Sumerian royal tombs at Ur hold treasures and human sacrifices. ca 2500 Egyptians begin to mummify their royal dead. ca 2240 King Naram‑Suen of Akkad ttempts to solidify his state by declaring himself a god. ca 2100 Hebrew patriarch Abraham leaves Ur in Sumer with his clan. 2090 King Shulki of Ur issues laws.
E	ca 2500 The Beaker culture, named for its pottery, expands from the Low Countries to France. ca 2500 Stone‑tool‑using cultures develop in Scandinavia. ca 2500 Along the Danube River and its tributaries in central Europe, people begin to till the soil. When the soil loses its fertility, they move westward. ca 2500 People in central Europe use slash‑and‑burn methods to clear the forests and make land arable. ca 2500 Overland trade routes develop from the Balkans to Spain. ca 2500 In Scandinavia, barley and wheat are grown and oxen, pigs, and sheep are raised. ca 2500 A rock carving in Rody, Norway, shows the earliest skiers. ca 2200 Round communal tombs are built in the Mesara plain of Crete. The snake and the bull are religious symbols.
AO	ca 2500 Harappan society in the Indus Valley becomes a full‑fledged civilization, complete with civic organization, religion, public works, and a system of writing. ca 2200 According to legend, the Xia dynasty in China develops at this time along the Yellow River. ca 2500 The Harappans domesticate chickens in the Indus Valley. ca 2200 Legendary founder of the Xia dynasty, Yu, tames the flooding of the Yellow River and brings order to human society in China. ca 2500 The Harappan writing system consists of 400 characters, which are incised on clay seals and copper tablets. The Harappans venerate various gods and goddesses; some form of this early belief system may have become part of Hinduism. ca 2200 The city of Erlitou near Luoyang in China is possibly the capital of the Xia dynasty, with a large palace like structure and many more‑modest buildings and workshops.
A	Ca2500 Arctic people develop campsites from North America all the way to Greenland. ca 2500 Hunter‑gatherers are settling in permanent communities from North America south to the Andean region of South America. ca 2500 Cotton is cultivated in what is now Peru, as well as potatoes, squash, and other gourds. ca 2500 People in the Grand Canyon caves of North America leave signs of hunting magic.
	2000 – 1500 BCE
MA	2000 Sumer is overrun by the western Amorites and the eastern Elamites. 1960 Egypt invades Nubia, extending its borders to the second Nile cataract. 1800 Hebrew clans migrate to Egypt. 1792‑1750 Hammurabi reunites and expands the Babylonian Empire. 1640 Egypt is defeated and ruled by nomadic Hyksos, marking the end of the Middle Kingdom. In 1550 Egypt's Theban kings rout the Hyksos and establish the New Kingdom. 1595 The Hittites sack Babylon. ca 2000 The Epic of Gilgamesh is composed with king Gilgamesh as its hero. An earlier work of poetry is written by Enheduanna of Akkad. 1900 The Sumerians reduce cuneiform script to about 600 characters. 1792 Hammurabi compiles a collection of laws, known as the Code of Hammurabi. These laws rely heavily retaliation, as in "an eye for eye" 1590 Pharaoh Tutmosis I begins tomb construction in the limestone cliffs west of Thebes. ca 2000 The shadoof, a device for lifting water with a bucket from a pole on a pivot and a counterweight, is invented in Egypt. ca IM Assyrians use a system of signal fires, a forerunner to the telegraph system. ca 1650 Babylonians record appearances of Venus. Later, Kassites relay an old text naming constellations and planets. ce 1600 Egyptians write a medical book showing accurate workings of the heart, stomach, bowels, and blood vessels. They also measure time of night by means of stars, now called the clecans. 2100‑1570 Rulers at Kerma in the Sudan become overlords of the lucrative Nile trade. ca 1900‑1700 Assyrians set up a web of trading centers throughout the Near East. While husbands travel and sell merchandise, wives stay home, managing the business of importing, manufacturing, and exporting. 1738 Kim Suen II of Larsa is the last Mesopotamian king to claim to be a god, until the arrival of the Greeks. ca 1600 The Mitanni, a small group speaking an Aryan language, rule northern Mesopotamia, populated mostly by Humans.
E	2000 Minoan civilization emerges on Crete and nearby islands, with rulers organizing the building of palaces and cities. 2000 The Bell Beaker culture rises in England, so named for their bell‑shaped pottery drinking vessels. 1800 Crete's central Position in the Mediterranean extends Minoan influence as a trading hub to the south and east. 1800 Neolithic farmers settle the Orkney Islands off the coast of Scotland. 1600 The Mycenaean civilization arises in the south of Greece. ca 2000 Aryan‑speaking Indo‑Europeans spread into Asia Minor, northern Greece, and Italy. ca 2000 The Amber Trade Routes are established by the Etruscans and Greeks to transport amber and tin from northern Europe. ca 1700 Aryan‑speaking people from northern Turkey and the Ukraine move northwestward to Scandinavia. ca 1700 A massive volcanic eruption on the island of Thera (Santorini) disrupts Minoan civilization. ca 2000 The legend of the Minotaur, from which the Minoans obtain their name, tells of a time when gods begat kings, and a king's daughter begat a Minotaur: half human, half bull. The Minotaur lived in a maze on Crete and required an annual sacrifice of virgins until Theseus of Athens killed him. ca 1800 More than 3,000 menhirs, or standing stones, are erected in Carnac, France. 1600 Stonehenge, the megalithic monument in England, is used as a religious center. 1600 The Minoans replace an earlier hieroglyphic script with an alphabetic script called Linear A. Cs 2000 Wheeled plows are used in some parts of Europe. a 2000 Large stone passage graves are constructed in Scandinavia. 0 1800 Bronze is produced in the British Isles, probably brought in by the Bell Beaker people. ca 1800 Bronze casting begins in Scandinavia. 1600‑1150 The Mycenaeans, an Indo-European people speaking an early form of Greek, move into mainland Greece and absorb the existing neolithic population. They establish cities on high ground, topped by a walled fortification. The Mycenaeans bring with them advanced knowledge of metallurgy, used in the production of tools, weapons, and armor. Skilled seafarers, they engage in maritime trade with nearby islands and the coast of the eastern Mediterranean and establish trading posts along the way. Mycenaean rulers are buried with treasures of gold and armor.
AO	ca 2000 The Harappans of the Indus Valley trade with neighboring Iran and engage in long‑distance trade with Mesopotamia, exchanging copper, ivory, pearls and semiprecious stones for Sumerian wool, leather, and olive oil. ca 2000 Austronesians reach Vanatu, and slowly move on to other islands, where they establish hierarchical chiefdoms. ca 1750 The Shang dynasty establishes loose control over territory in the lower reaches of the Yellow River Valley and the north China plain. ca 2000 Deforestation of the Indus Valley begins. ca 2000 Traveling in outrigger boats, Austronesians settle various South Pacific islands, where they introduce yams, taro root, and breadfruit. ca:1700 The Chinese of the Shang dynasty develop a writing system, used to record questions asked of the Shang kings' ancestors and the responses given. Known as oracle bone script‑that is, cracks in burnt bones‑these marks are the foundation of the Chinese written script. Ca 1700 During the Shang era, the Chinese perfect the wheel, carve jade and ivory, and make ceremonial objects and weapons of bronze. The Shang rulers keep a tight monopoly on bronze production, thus limiting the manufacture of weapons for their own use. ca 1700 The kings of the Shang dynasty are supported by aristocrats, who join them in warfare and royal hunts. The masses live in villages outside the royal cities and labor in the fields. The Shang build half‑timbered houses over rammed‑earth floors, with walls of wattle and daub and thatched roofs. Royal tombs are dug deep into the earth and equipped with splendid pottery and bronze objects, as well as sacrificial royal retainers, who accompany them into the afterlife. Family names carved into bone or brushed onto tortoise shells hint at future ancestor worship.
A	ca 2000 Hunter‑gatherers populate North America. ca 2000 Agricultural villages spread all over Mesoamerica and intensive farming begins. 2000 Potatoes and quinoa become a major crop in the Andean highlands of South America. 1800 Andean people of South America build first ceremonial centers of pyramids and temples and shape distinctive pottery. ca 2000 Neolithic skills of weaving, basket making, pottery making, building of shelter, and the formation of villages develop in the Americas.
	1500 – 1400 BCE
MA	1505 Queen Hatshepsut takes over the rule of Egypt. She sends expeditions into Nubia and Somalia. ca 1500 Kassites assert a low‑key, rule over Babylon, adopting local customs. ca 1500 Ugarit's ships rule commerce in the eastern Mediterranean. The city houses as many as 8,000 people. 1490‑1436 Tutmosis III of Egypt leads successful campaigns into Palestine and Syria and presses deeper into Nubia, to Nile's fourth cataract. ca 1500 The cult of Amurra, god of nomads, flourishes in Babylon. He is depicted wearing a long robe and hat, with a crook in his hand and a gazelle by his side. ca 1500 Ugarit's cuneiform alphabet is reduced from 600 signs to 30, although scribes retain the old version as well. ca 1500 Urgaritic sailors dedicate stone anchors to the god Baal in gratitude for a safe homecoming.
E	1450 The Mycenaeans expand their influence beyond mainland Greece, establishing settlements in Anatolia, Sicily, and southern Italy. They also take control of Crete, ending Minoan civilization. ca 1500 The Mycenaeans are using a script called Linear B. Artisans make designs on bone, clay, and bronze with compasses. ca 1500 Alpine copper is used to make jewelry in England.
AO	ca 1500 Aryan‑speaking Indo-Europeans move into the Indus Valley from the north and take control of the region. Harappan civilization declines, perhaps because of drought, and its cities are abandoned ca 1500 The Jornon period in Japan reaches its peak. ca 1500 The water buffalo is domesticated in China. ca 1500 Sorghum is cultivated in India. ca 1500 Austronesian mariners establish settlements in the Fiji Islands. ca 15OO Austronesian mariners create the Lapita exchange network in the western Pacific islands. ca 1500 Japan's Jornon people create human figurines of clay as fertility symbols.
A	ca 1500 Olmec culture develops in the region of the modern states of Veracruz and Tabasco in Mexico. ca 1500 The nomadic Chichimeca people expand in northern Mexico. ca 1500 Chiefdoms in the lowlands of the Gulf of Mexico produce surplus crops of corn by achieving two crops a year. They also plant manioc.
	1400 – 1300 BCE
MA	ca 1400 The Phoenician cities Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos thrive as centers of trade, exporting purple cloth and cedars of Lebanon. ca:1400 The city of Jericho, destroyed by the Hyksos, is rebuilt and prospers. ca 1350 Hittite king Suppiluiluma I ends Mittani power and takes Syria. Ashurballit I regains Assyria's independence. 1335‑1325 Tutankhamun succeeds to the throne of Egypt as a boy of only 9 years old. He dies at 19. 1353‑1335 Pharaoh Akhenaten, for a brief period, establishes a form of monotheism in Egypt. 1325 At the death of Tutankhamun, his royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings is filled with food, drink, and splendid treasure to equip him for a luxurious afterlife: bejeweled ornaments; golden cases; furniture; a royal wardrobe, including armor; and even a boat. ca 1400 A shipwreck off the coed of Turkey dating to this period, discovered in the 20th century C.E., is loaded with resin, ebony logs, ivory, ostrich eggshells, tortoise shells, murex shells, oripiment (yellow dye), figs, pomegranates, grapes, olives, safflower, and coriander.
E	ca 1400 People in settled communities all over Europe begin to accumulate material wealth and build fortified villages to defend their possessions. ca 1400 The eastern Alps are mined for copper and salt. Salt is a precious commodity, and is exchanged for pottery, glass, and wine from the Mediterranean, tin from Britain, and gold from Bohemia. ca 1400 Cremation rather than inhumation comes into practice, suggesting different ideas about the afterlife. a 1400 Farmers in central Europe use some metals for making sickles and other tools, and probably rotate their crops.
AO	ca 1400 Aryans in India engage in frequent wars with the Dravidians and other early people settled there, eventually merging with them and establishing communities throughout the subcontinent. ca 1400 Excavations at the site of one of the Shang's several capitals‑the city of Zhengzhou in Henan province‑reveal city walls 33 feet high and 66 feet thick, surrounding a 32‑square‑foot area with a center platform of pounded earth 30 feet square. 1400 India's Aryans do not develop an organized political structure, but establish a firm social order. They develop a belief system that is the foundation of Hinduism. ca 1400 Hindu sages create the Vedas, a collection of hymns, prayers, and liturgy‑the earliest Hindu sacred writings. ca 1400 The Chinese produce stoneware pottery that is fired at high temperatures – the beginning of porcelain manufacture. ca 1400 The Shang dynasty develops a calendar with a 366 day year if 12 lunar months.
A	ca 1400 Olmec influence expands from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. ca 1400 Olmec are considered the “mother of culture” of Mesoamerica because so many of the traits are repeated in subsequent civilizations.
	1300 – 1200 BCE
MA	ca 1300 Led by Moses, the Hebrews leave Egypt for Palestine, where they establish Israel. 1298‑1232 Egypt's Ramses 11 battles encroaching armies on all sides. He clashes with Hittite King Muwattalli II in the Battle of Kadesh, but preserves the empire. 1290 The city of Troy on the coast of modern day Turkey is destroyed by the Mycenaeans. ca:1285 Assyria's King Adadnlrarl I conquers the Mitanni and founds the Assyrian Empire across northern Mesopotamia. ca1250 Swarms of locusts destroy crops in the Nile Valley in Egypt. ca 1250 An earthquake rocks Phoenician Nineveh and damages the temple of Ishtar. ca 1300 Moses receives the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai, in today's Egypt. ca 1300 Assyrian kings are responsible to the national god, Ashur, for providing peace, prosperity, and justice to his people. If a king breaks his covenant with Ashur, the god will replace him with another. 1290 The story of the Trojan War‑the battle of the Mycenaeans against Troy‑is preserved by oral tradition for four centuries until retold in Homer's epic the Iliad in the mid ninth century B.C.E. ca 1290 Centuries after the fall of Troy, Greek poet Aeschylus will report that Queen Clytemnestra of Greece was informed of the victory and the impending return of her husband, King Agamemnon, by a system of signal was, a forerunner of the telegraph system. 1298‑1232 Long‑lived Pharaoh Ramses II of Egypt builds more monuments to himself than any other pharaoh: extensions at the temples of Karnak and Luxor; the Ramesseum on the west side of the Nile; and six temples in Nubia, the most splendid of which is at Abu Simbel. This warrior king fights many battles, but also negotiates for peace. Following the battle with the Hittites, he takes a Hittite princess as one of his many wives. After a reign of 67 years, Ramses dies and leaves 50 sons. The 13th one, Merenptah, becomes his successor.
E	1300 The Mycenaeans of mainland Greece command Crete and numerous colonies along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean established through trade. ce 1300 People of the Urnfield culture in central Europe use bronze to make weapons and jewelry. ca 1300 Urnfield people cremate the dead and bury their ashes in urns in cemeteries.
AO	1300 The Shang rulers of China move their capital to Anyang. 1361 Chinese astronomers record an eclipse of the moon.
A	ca 1300 Olmec civilization continues to thrive, coalescing around San Lorenzo. ca 1300 People at Poverty Point, in what is now Louisiana, import copper and flint, but do not develop agriculture. ca 1300 Olmec practice ritual bloodletting and ball games, rites that will become characteristics of Mesoamerican civilization. a 1300 People at Poverty Point construct a complex of earthworks around a plaza where Miders and artisans work and ceremonies are held. The community of about 1,000 people is surrounded by smaller settlements. ca 1300 The Poverty Point society demonstrates that settlements and the capacity to organize labor are not tied to agriculture. People in this community construct monumental projects, yet they are hunter‑gatherers and rely on fishing and trade.
	1200 – 1100 BCE
MA	ca:1200 Assy King Tukulti Ninurta I defeates Babylon 1180 The Hittie homeland in Anatolia is invaded, ending the empire. 1174 The 12 tribes of Israel, ruled by judges, meet at the sanctuary of Shiloh to agree on a united front. 1173 The Elarnites sack Babylon. 1125 Israelites fight the Canaanites in the Battle of Meggicloh. 1214 Assyria's King Tiglath‑Pileser extends his influence as far as Lebanon, before losing most of his empire to the Arameans. ca 1150 An earthquake hits Nineveh again, damaging the Ishtar temple. 1141 A plague kills 50,000 people in Israel. ca 1200 Canaanites, Phoenicians, pillared houses. ca 1200 A Sarnarian hilltop shrine features a circle of large stones with a standing stone on one side; a bronze figurine of a bull is found on the site. Ca 1200 Craftsmen in Mesopotamia perfect Iron tools and weapons, although experimentation with iron begins at an earlier date. 1180 The empire of the Hittites‑Indo-Europeans of mixed Anatolian, Babylonian, and Hurrian culture living in Anatolia since 1650‑is destroyed by invaders. The empire was held together by elaborate treaties and powerful kings, among them Hattusili I, who abolished most death penalties; Mursili I, who conquered Aleppo and destroyed Hammurabi's Babylon; and Tudhaliya II, who reconquered most of Anatolia and challenged Egypt and the Mittanni in Syria. The Hittites fought Egypt's mighty Ramses II to a draw in the battle of Kadesh, which resulted in a Hittite princess joining Ramses' harem.
E	ca 1200 Proto‑Celtic people of Indo‑European origin settle in central Europe. ca 1200 Dorian‑speaking Greeks arrive on the Peloponnesus. 1150 The Mycenaean civilization declines on mainland Greece. 1226 An eruption of Mount Etna in Sicily is recorded for the first time. ca 1200 Spiral decoration styles spread from the Caucasus northward
AO	ca 1200 The Shang dynasty in China is showing signs of turmoil. ca 1200 Fu Hao, chief consort of Shang King Wu Ding, is buried in a royal tomb with bronze, jade, and ivory artifacts that date back to pre‑Shang times.
A	ca 1200 The Sioux people live a subsistence existence in the Canadian plains. ca 1200‑200 For a thousand years people along the California coast sustain their communities through marine life. While men fish, women grind acorn flour. 1200 Olmec society is at its peak with a monumental ceremonial complex of huge pyramids, temples, and palaces at San Lorenzo. ca 1200 Maize is a staple crop in Mesoamerica. ca 1200 The Olmec sculpt colossal stone heads, representing aspects of an awesome religion. Their pantheon includes jaguar deities and fertility goddesses. They are also noted for their elaborate serpentine mosaics, some as large as 15 by 20 feet. ce 1200 The Olmec: develop a lunar calendar. ca 1299 Reed boats are in use in Ecuador and Peru. ca 1200 Olmec society is well organized with the elite mobilizing large groups of people for the labor necessary to erect huge structures and monumental sculptures. They develop a far‑ranging network of exchange, trading obsidian, jade, and cocoa beans.
	1100 – 1000 BCE
MA	ca 1100 Incursions by Aramaeans into Assyria and Babylon cause those countries to lapse into a dark age. 1075 Central rule is weakened in Egypt and local governments pursue their own interests. A chaotic era begins, spelling the end of the New Kingdom period. .1050 Samuel, the prophet and last of the judges, becomes ruler of Israel and defeats the Philistines. 1025 Saul, who has fought the Philistines under Samuel, is anointed king of Israel. ca 1100 Hittite refugees and Arameans found many city‑states in Syria, northern Mesopotamia, and southern Anatolia. ca 1050 Saharan farmers and herders move southward as the region experiences significantly drier episodes. ca 1100 Phoenicians standardize the first alphabet of 22 letters, simplifying writing and thus allowing more people to become literate. This alphabet is adapted by the Mycenaeans and is the basis for our modern alphabet. ca 1100 The Tale of Wen‑Amon tells of an Egyptian official, passing through Canaan on his way to buy cedars in Lebanon. He stays for a while with the Sea Peoples, who seem to control the coastal trade. ca 1100 Esaglikinapli of Borsippa in Mesopotamia puts together a medical diagnostic textbook. ca 1100 The library of Assyrian King Tlglath-Pileser includes manuals for horse training and glassmaking. 1025‑1000 King Saul of Israel engages in many military campaigns. After success against the Philistines, he fights against Moab, Ammon, Edom, the kings of Zobah, and the Amalekites in the Negev desert. Renewed fighting with the Philistines brings him the victory at Socoh, where David fights Goliath. Saul makes David an officer in his army, but David, suddenly popular, fears Saul's jealousy and hides in the mountains. In renewed fighting, Saul succumbs to the Philistines.
E	ca 1100 Indo‑Europeans stream into Italy from the north, among them the Latin, the Sabine, and the Samnite tribes. ca 1100 In northern Scandinavia, hunters carve images of hundreds of deer on rock Cliffs, hoping for a good hunt. ca 1100 Amber from the Baltic Sea begins to be traded widely in Europe.
AO	ca 12.00 Homo floresiensis‑‑the small people of Flores, Indonesia, descended from Homo erectus‑probably die out at this time. Despite having only a small brain, this human species uses stone tools and fire. 1045 The Shang dynasty is toppled by a challenger from northwestern China, who founds the Zhou dynasty. ca :1100 Austronesian people speak variations of Malayan, Indonesian, Filipino, Polynesian, and other Oceanic languages. ca 1045 The Zhou people, ethnically distinct from the rulers of the Shang dynasty, move into Shang territory from the northeast and establish their capital in the Wei River Valley near the modern city of Xi'an.
A	ca 1100 The Chavin de Huintar people in the Andes in South America organize in a complex society around a religious cult and sturdy tools. construct a large temple. Ca 1100 Chavin culture is located at 9000 feet in the Andes with a Population of more than 3,000. ca 1100 Andean society in South America i's becoming ever more complex. Weavers begin to construct intricately patterned textiles and craftspeople work with gold, silver, and copper to make finely wrought jewelry and sturdy tools. ca 1100 The Olmec Manufacture rubber balls from the sap of rubber trees in the tropics to play the famous ball games of Mesoamerica.
	1000 – 900 BCE
MA	ca 1000 Phoenician city‑states continue to send out merchant fleets to establish trading posts in Cyprus, Sicily, Malta, and Spain. 1000 David becomes king of Israel, uniting the states of Judah and Israel. 1000 Indo‑European Medes and Persians migrate from Central Asia to Iran. 960‑925 Solomon succeeds his father David as king of Israel. At his death, his sons split the kingdom in two: Jeroboam becomes king of Israel; Rehoboam king of Judah. 920 The Assyrians begin to reconquer lost territories. 1000 King David brings the Ark of the Covenant, containing the Ten Commandments, to Jerusalem. ca 950 Egyptians simplify their writing style by using an alphabetic script, called demotic. 945 Israel trades with the Queen of Sheba of South Arabia and Ethiopia, who sends camel trains bearing spices, gold, and precious stones. ca 925 Solomon builds a temple in Jerusalem, using Phoenician logs and craftsmen. Hebrew literature expands with the "Song of Deborah, " later collected in Song of Songs. ca 1000 Phoenicians dye fabrics purple with an extract from Murex snails. ca 1000 Assyrians make effective use of horse‑drawn chariots as mobile firing platforms for archers. They devise many types of siege engines and battering rams.
E	ca 1000 Proto‑Etruscans develop independent city‑states between the Arno and Tiber Rivers in Italy. ca 1000 Greeks migrate across the Aegean Sea and colonize parts of Asia Minor. ca:1000 A mass migration of Germanic peoples into central Europe begins. ca 1000 Oats are cultivated in Europe. ca 3.000 Etruscans cremate their dead and bury them in terracotta urns, sometimes shaped like a house. ca 1000 The use of iron begins in Greece.
AO	ca 1000 Aryans in India settle into permanent communities between the Himalyan foothills and the Ganges River. Regional kingdoms form in northern India. ca:1000 Zhou kings rule the "central kingdom" and apportion rule of outlying territories to their kin, granting titles of nobility as they confer the right to rule. ca 1000 Variations In climate and food supply affect the populations of Jornon Japan, scattered from the northernmost islands of Hokkaido to the southernmost island of Kyushu. ca 1000 Austronesians settle the islands of Tonga and Samoa. ca:1000 The Hindu caste system in India is organized into four main varnas: Brahmins‑priests Kshatriyas‑warriors and aristocrats Vaishyas‑farmers, craftsmen, merchants Shudras‑land less peasants These were followed later by the untouchables‑people who do unpleasant tasks, such as burying the dead. ca 1000 Iron metallurgy becomes known in China, allowing for a more widespread production of tDols, especially weapons. Local governments can arm themselves more cheaply and oppose central rule to follow their own pursuits.
A	ca 1000 In the Ohio River Valley, the Adena people form an agricultural society. ca 1000 The Cochise culture dominates the area of modern‑day New Mexico and Arizona. ca 1000 Inults and Aleuts, who have migrated across the sea by boat to the Arctic during the last 2,000 years, have successfully adapted to their polar environment. ca 1000 The Adena people of North America carve stone tablets with bold reliefs of birds and geometric designs. ca 1000 The Chavin temples In Peru hold galleries for religious rites with statuary. The temples are also used for storing food supplies. The Chavin elite is buried with objects of precious metals and woven textiles. ca 1000 The Pinto Indians in California build housing of wood interwoven with reeds and covered with earth. ca 1000 People of the southwestern Cochise culture develop pit houses. They also produce pottery figurines. ca 1000 The Olmec invent the tortilla, which includes atole, or corn gruel. This food is easily transported and does not perish rapidly; it is the original "fast food" of the Americas.
	900 – 800 BCE
MA	ca 900 The Nubian kingdom of Kush establishes its capital at Napata. 883‑859 Under king Ashurnasirpal 11, Assyria regains its lost land and again becomes a great power in Mesopotamia. 876‑869 King Omri rules in Samaria, Israel. 859‑824 Assyrian king Shalmaneser III invades Syria. He is stopped by a coalition including Ahab of Israel. ca 850 The Urartian kingdom is founded in eastern Anatolia by relations of the Hurrians. Citadels are built on mountain crags. The capital is Van. 813 Carthage is founded by the Phoenicians on the coast of North Africa. ca 860 Samaria becomes a religious center in Israel. Ahab's queen, Jezebel of Sidon, introduces the worship of Baal. ca 860 The prophets Elijah and Elisha fight against the worship of Baal, resulting in the murder of the royal families of Israel, Judah, and Damascus and the slaughter of all whose form of worship does not meet Elijah's approval. 841 Jehu, as part of Elisha's fundamentalist revolution, seizes the throne of Israel. The anti‑Assyrian coalition collapses, and Jehu is forced to pay tribute to Shalmaneser III. ca 900 The Nok people of Nigeria fashion sculptures of fired clay. 883‑745 Assyrians bring conquered people to the Assyrian heartland and move Assyrians to the newly conquered territory. All are now considered equal Assyrian citizens. The royal road and postal system is extended throughout the empire.
E	ca 900 The Etruscans develop a rich culture, spreading along present‑day Tuscany, Latium, and Umbria in Italy. ca 900 The Euboeans, Greek traders, found colonies on the west coast of southern Italy. ca 885 Lycurgus creates the laws and institutions of Sparta in Greece. ca 900 Etruscan mariners ply the waters of the Tyrrhenian Sea to the islands of Elba, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily. ca 900 The Etruscans excel in fashioning artistic sculpture, ranging from alabaster and marble to bronze objects, and are renowned for their elegant marble sarcophagi with lifelike portraits of the deceased. They also develop a form of writing that has not yet been deciphered. ca 885 Mandatory physical education begins in Sparta. ca 900 The Etruscans exploit the mineral wealth of copper and tin in their region. ca 900 Scandinavians build large burial mounds and sometimes include stone ships among the grave goods. ca 850 Homer writes the Iliad and the Odyssey, the epic poems recounting parts of the Trojan War and the journey home for Greek hero Odysseus. Though their authorship is often disputed, the two epics are thought to be the oldest literary documents in the Greek language and are considered prototypes for much of Western literature.
AO	ca 900‑800 During the Zhou dynasty craftsmen excel in producing artistic bronze wares, which are prized and traded beyond China's borders. ca 900 The Law Code of Manu in India is a compilation of rules of proper moral behavior in Vedic society, including the treatment of women. Men are encouraged to treat women with respect, but women are subject to the men in their lives: first their fathers, then their husbands or brothers, then their sons. The code also advises: Wound not others, do no injury by thought or deed, utter no word to pain thy fellow creatures. He who habitually salutes and constantly pays reverence to the aged obtains an increase in four things: length of life, knowledge, fame, and strength.
A	ca 900 The Olmec capital of San Lorenzo in Mexico is destroyed; a ceremonial complex at La Venta becomes the new focal point of Olmec civilization. ca 900 People on the Paracas Peninsula of Peru develop ceremonial centers. ca 900 A large pyramid and several smaller ones mark the center of the Olmec La Venta complex. ca 900 The Paracas people mummify their dead, wrapping them in finely woven cotton fabrics. ca 1000 The Olmec maintain trade relations as far south as El Salvador. They also trade for jade with the modern‑day Mexican state of Guerrero and for obsidian from Oaxaca.
	800 – 700 BCE
MA	ca 800 The Assyrian Empire encompasses Mesopotamia and conquers Syria and parts of Anatolia. 750 The Phoenician colony of Carthage in North Africa develops into an independent hub of trade for the western Mediterranean. 750 The Nubian kingdom of Kush conquers Egypt and rules for nearly 100 years. 721 After a siege of three years, Israel falls to the Assyrians. Many Hebrews are resettled in other parts of the empire, replaced by ancestors of the Samaritans. 745 Assyrian king Tiglath‑Pileser III begins the policy of exchanging part of the population of one newly annexed land for that of another. Agricultural development is a primary Assyrian aim. New unwalled farming settlements are founded all over the empire. ca 740 Babylonians begin recording celestial phenomena, river levels, commodity prices, and historical events. ca 800 At the Nubian capital of Napata, a large temple complex is built in honor of Amun Re, the same god revered by the Egyptians. Other Nubian cities build pyramids and temples in Egyptian style. ca 745 Assyrians standardize Aramaic, written alphabetically with pen and ink, as the language of imperial administration. They also use Assyro‑Babylonian, written in syllabic cuneiform on clay. ca 800 Nublans forge iron tools and weapons; the iron industry leads to deforestation. ca 725 Assyrians begin to chart the heavens in a scientific way. By about 720 they invent the martingale and effective bow cavalry.
E	800 The Celts, settled in central Europe, spread westward from the region near Hallstatt, Austria, and move into England. 800 Independent city‑states develop in Greece; foremost among them are Sparta and Athens. 753 The city of Rome is founded by Romulus and Remus on seven hills in central Italy. 750 Scythian horsemen sweep in from the east, moving into the Crimea and the Dnieper and Danube River regions. ca 800 The Greeks found colonies around the Mediterranean and Aegean coast. ca 800 The Celts worship at springs and under oak trees. Druid priests hold rites. ca 800 The Scythians lead only partially settled lives as herders, but amass vast riches as raiders. They fashion graceful gold objects and jewelry and bury their dead in kurgans, large mounds of earth. Kings' burials are accompanied by golden treasures, retainers, and horses to guide them into the next life. ca 800 Apollo is worshiped at Delphi in Greece. 776 The first Olympic Games are recorded at Olympia. ca 800The Celts of the Hallstatt region adopt Iron metallurgy and help spread it throughout Europe. Weapons and agricultural tools, such as sickles and plows, hammers, anvils, roasting spits, and axes come in use. ca 800 The city of Sparta, situated on the Peloponnesus, extends its influence over the entire peninsula, obligating neighboring people to provide agricultural labor. To keep people subjugated, the Spartans develop a highly trained military force‑prizing, above all, discipline and an austere lifestyle. Spartan boys enter a rigorous military school at age seven‑ at age 20, they begin active military service and remain in service until retirement.
AO	772 Nomads attack the Zhou, forcing them to move their capital east to Luoyang, and dividing China into Eastern Zhou and Western Zhou kingdoms. ca 800 Indian teachers consolidate Aryan beliefs into scriptures called the Upanishads, which form the basis of Hinduism. ca 800 Chinese poems from this period are later compiled in the Book of Songs.
A	ca 800 The Chavin culture of Peru reaches a high point as a religious center and as market center in the long‑distance‑trade network developing in the Andes. ca 800‑700 The people on the coast of the Bering Strait shift their entire existence to the sea: whale, other mammals, and fish become their main source of food. ca 800 The temple at Chavin is U‑shaped and contains 1,600 feet of internal drainage and ventilation ducts. It faces the rising sun on the east. ca 0800‑700 The coastal people of the Bering Strait develop the toggling harpoon to hunt marine life. They also invent kayaks and hide to enable them to harvest marine life. ca 900 Artisans at Chavin combine llama and alpaca hair with cotton fibers to produce durable fabrics and weave them kb special designs. ca 800‑700 The coastal people of the Bering Strait develop teamwork for communal whale hunts.
	700 – 600 BCE
MA	ca 700 Mounted horsemen‑Cimmerians and Scythians‑sweep into the Middle East. Assyrian King Sargon II is killed in battle. 664 Assyrians drive the Nubians out of Egypt and install Necho I. Nubians move their capital from Napata south to Meroe. 647 Assyrian King Ashurbanipal vanquishes the Elamites in southwestern Iran. 625‑605 A new Babylonian empire‑the Chaldaean empire‑emerges under Nabopolasser. 614‑609 The Assyrian Empire is annihilated by the combined forces of King Nabopolasser of Babylon and King Cyaxetes of Media. ca 700 Bantu‑speaking hunters, fishers, and farmers expand from Cameroonian grasslands into equatorial forests and farther eastward. ca 620 Zarathustra, of an aristocratic Persian family, leaves his home in search of a way to improve religious practices that are heavy on sacrifice and ritual. Inspired by visions, he synthesizes his message of one supreme god and six lesser ones and recommends moderation in all things and a moral way of life. 605 Babylonian god Marduk absorbs the attributes of all the other gods; worship of Marduk alone begins, possibly because of the Jewish influence in Babylon. At the New Year priests slap Babylonian kings across the face to remind them of their place with respect to Marduk. ca 646 Assyrian king Sennacherib has hang in gardens built at Nineveh, river‑sized aqueducts for agriculture constructed, and public parks created. Assyrians invent the was called Archimedes screw for irrigation, Introduce cotton from India, devise glazed brick and pottery, and invent the two‑power magnifying glass. ca 700 Assyria's king Sargon II is kept informed by a spy system, employing agents trained in foreign languages and also native informants. 668‑625 Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, the first king to be taught to write, collects copies of all the known scientific, historical, religious, and literary works into a library of tens of thousands of tablets.
E	ca 700 Athens and other Greek city‑states become centers of learning. Maritime trade brings riches to Athens. ca 700 Etruscans in northern Italy become prosperous because of their mineral wealth, trading with Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece. 6.16 The Etruscan Tarquinus Priscus becomes king of Rome. ca 700 Mediterranean wine, and the equipment needed to serve and drink it, is imported into central Europe. ca 700 Greek epic poet Hesiod writes about farm life in Works and Days, describing the planting ca 700 Timber‑reinforced stone and earth ramparts are built around villages in ever Increasing numbers. ca 700 Iron slashing swords become More Common. ca 700 The use of Iron In England is established.
AO	ca 700 With the decline of the Zhou dynasty, China is torn by a power struggle between rival semi‑autonomous states in what becomes known as the Spring and Autumn states.
A	ca 700 Reliefs at Monte Albfin in Oaxaca, Mexico, show far‑ranging Olmec influence. ca 700 Maya begin to organize into 50 separate religious‑political entities in the diffuse civilizational network they are known for. ca 700 Despite the thin, fertile layer of earth on top of limestone, the Maya manage to develop settled agriculture in the Yucat6n Peninsula. ca 700 Olmec reliefs include short hieroglyphs that show the presence of the earliest written language in Mesoamerica. ca 700 The Chaidn of Peru appear to be the first Americans to develop three‑dimensional metal objects through the art of soldering.
	600 – 500 BCE
MA	587 Nebuchadrezzar II sacks the kingdom of Judah. Many people are carried off to Babylon as captives. 558‑529 Cyrus the Great rules Elam and Persia and conquers Media, Asia Minor, and Babylon. The Jews are permitted to return to Jerusalem; some do, but many remain in Babylon. Cyrus's son Cambyses gains Egypt. 545 Wealthy Croesus of Lydia in Anatolia loses his kingdom to the Persian army. 522 Darius I usurps rule in Persia. ca 600 Phoenician sailors in the employ of Pharaoh Necho II circumnavigate Africa. They also found a Phoenician colony at Mogador/Essaouira, on the Atlantic coast of what is now Morocco. ca 550 Cyrus the Great extends the Persian Royal Road and the courier system to Susa and Sardis, with lodging posts along the way for a relay of horses and riders. He founds Persepolis, a ceremonial center of palaces, monumental gateways, and colonnaded halls. 587 Solomon's temple in Jerusalem is destroyed by Nebechadrezzar II. In 520 the Jews rebuild the temple. 560 King Croesus of Lydia in Anatolia mints the first gold and silver coins from ores mined near the Pactolus River. 522 Darius I introduces Mazdaism to the Persian empire. ca 600 The Persians develop an irrigation of subterranean system of aqueducts called These channels carry water from the mountains to the desert with a minimum of evaporation. 587 Nebuchadrezzar II, who restores Babylon to greatness, is infamous for his conquest of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. He defeats the Assyrians and Egyptians at Car chemish and destroys the Phoenician city-states. After his victories, he sets to enlarge his city. He surrounds Babylon with fortified walls, rebuilds a temple to the god Marcluk, and adds several hundred more temples and palaces. He may have constructed the famous hanging gardens of Babylon, considered one of the wonders of the ancient world, in imitation of the gardens in Nineveh.
E	594 Aristocratic leader Solon of Athens, Greece, introduces reforms that allow all free citizens to participate in government. He is called "the father of democracy." 509 The Romans drive the Etruscans out of Rome and establish the Roman Republic. In a move to finish off Etruria, they conquer Etruscan cities one by one. 508 Cleisthenes of Athens invents gerrymandering. ca 600 Herding is more important than farming among people in Ireland and northern Britain. ca 600 People in Denmark cast bronze lures, six‑foot‑long instruments modeled on horns, which can play a range of notes. ca 600 The Princess of Vix, a Celtic woman, is buried in France with a wagon, a huge Greek imported bronze drinking vessel, and gold jewelry. 525‑456 Aeschylus writes the Oresteia, the earliest dramatic poems using a Greek chorus. 583-497 Pythagoras, Greek philosopher and mathematician, develops basic principles of mathematics and astronomy and formulates his theorem to calculate the area of a triangle: The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle equals the of the squares of the length of the sum of the two other sides.
AO	ca 600 In the wars of expansion on the Indian subcontinent, several small kingdoms vie for power, but none achieves domination over the others. 520 Parts of northwestern India are conquered by Persia. ca 600 Chinese philosopher Lao Zi, the founder of Daoism, which encourages a simple life in tune with nature, is born. 560 Kong Fuzi, known in the West as Confucius, is born in the region of Shantong in northeastern China. ca 560 Prince Siddhartha Gautama is born in the foothills of the Himalayas; he is later known as the Buddha and introduces Buddhism. 540‑468 Mahavira, the founder of Jainism in India, lives a life of asceticism and teaches a doctrine of nonviolence toward other living beings and of detachment from the world. 560‑483 Buddha, the son of a princely family, leaves his wife and children to live as a hermit and to seek spiritual fulfillment. After wandering through the Ganges Valley, begging for food and living a life of extreme asceticism, he reaches enlightenment. He begins to preach the Four Noble Truths, explaining that life involves suffering; desire causes suffering; elimination of desire ends suffering; and a balanced, moral life eliminates desire. Meditation and disciplined self‑control will eventually lead to personal salvation and end the cycle of reincarnation so that a person can reach nirvana. His message catches on among the common people but is also supported by kings, and it spreads rapidly.
A	ca 600 The Arctic Dorset people construct housing of stone and driftwood and semi subterranean sod shelters along the Hudson Strait of Canada. 600‑500 Olmec culture declines. 600‑500 Native people In Canada begin farming and form villages. ca 600 The Dorset people invent a form of illumination by lighting moss wicks set in whale blubber