HH-01-EarlyCivilzations4000-500BC

Early Civilizations of the Near East 4000BC to 500 BC

stepped ziggurat of Ur to honor Nanna the god of the moon

The Birthplace of Civilization

Early civilizations emerged in the Tigris-Euphrates valley of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and the Nile valley of Egypt between 4000 and 3000 BC in river valleys. They also emerged in the Indus valley of western India, China and Central America. The rivers of Egypt and Mesopotamia overflowed their banks each year leaving a deposit of rich soil and provided water enabling people to produce sizable harvests. Both river valleys were quite narrow, and were surrounded by huge expanses of desert.

By 3200 BC some form of government had developed in both river valleys. The emergence of small city‑states was one of the first examples of urban life in the Near East, although settled communities had existed as early as 6000 BC in places like Jerico.

Institutions as schools and law codes also developed. The invention of writing, the development of physics, astronomy, and mathematics, plus the art of smelting, were additional factors in the emergence of civilized society.

Generally speaking, Egypt was less susceptible to the invasions of the semicivilized groups that repeatedly entered the Tigris‑Euphrates valley. Distance, rather than formidable natural frontiers, seems to have been the chief factor. For this reason Egypt developed in relative isolation until the Hyksos invasion.

The Civilization of Mesopotamia

The Sumerians By 4000 BC the Sumerians had settled in the Tigris‑Euphrates valley, their place of origin unknown. By 3000 B.C. many important city‑states appeared in Sumer. Among them were Ur, Eridu, Lagash, and Nippur. These cities were fiercely jealous of their independence, and one city seldom predominated for very long. Each city-state was administered by an official called a patesi. He represented the highest political, religious, and military authority. A patesi who was able to conquer a large number of city‑states was dignified with the title of lugal, or king. The First Dynasty of Ur (c. 2500‑2300 BC) produced a line that dominated most of Sumer and part of Akkad for two centuries. Around 2275 BC Lugal Zaggisi of Uruk made himself master of Mesopotamia. Soon thereafter Sargon I of Agade overthrew Lugal Zaggisi and inaugurated a period of Semitic hegemony.

The Akkadians Akkadian power was centered about the city of Babylon. Akkadian armies controlled the entire Tigris‑Euphrates valley as far north as the Taurus Mountains. Some authorities even believe that Sargon I subjugated Syria. Sargon I, the "king of battle," divided his empire into districts ruled by the "sons of the palace." Revolts were common, nevertheless, and these so weakened the Akkadians that they were overwhelmed by the Guti around 2150 BC. During their brief period of dominance, the Akkadians dropped their nomadic ways and adopted much of Sumerian culture. Akkadian cultural acquisitions included cuneiform writing, the Sumerian system of weights and measures, and the Sumerian calendar. The Akkadians surpassed their Sumerian teachers in the art of seal cutting and stone sculpture.

The Guti This uncivilized people swept into Mesopotamia around 2150 BC from their home in the Zagros Mountains of Persia. They routed the weak Akkadian successors of Naram‑Sin. These Semitic conquerors had several capable leaders during their short period of dominance (c. 2150‑2070 BC). Among the better kings were Irridu‑Pizir, Lasirab, and Tirigan.

Sumerian revival Around 2070 BC the Guti were driven out by Utu Khegal of Erech. The Sumerians were able to reestablish their authority under the Third Dynasty of Ur. Commerce thrived, and cultural achievement reached its zenith. Dungi, the "King of the Four Quarters," was the most important monarch of this dynasty. He is known for his excellent law code. Dynastic conflicts were responsible for the sharp decline of Sumerian power after 2000 BC. Both the Elamites and Amorites (Babylonians) poured into Mesopotamia to fill the power vacuum left after the decline of the Third Dynasty of Ur.’

The Amorites (Babylonians) This Semitic people moved into Mesopotamia from Syria around 2000 BC. Only the Elamites offered resistance, since the hostile Sumerian dynasties of Isin and Larsa were engaged in petty quarrels. The Amorites fended off the Elamite challenge and ruled Mesopotamia until the Kassite incursion around 1670 BC. The greatest Amorite ruler was Hammurabi (1728‑1686 BC). He created a permanent administration for his domains, set up law courts, a system of taxation, and rules for military service. His numerous letters mark him as a model administrator. Hammurabi's Code of Laws was the greatest legacy he left. Its 282 paragraphs were based on Sumerian and Semitic precedents. It dealt with property rights, personal injuries, family affairs, and a host of other matters.

Mesopotamian culture

Cueiform Tablet Sargon Sumerian woman appeal to heaven Arch Hammurabi

The Sumerians must be given credit for the basic cultural contributions. Prior to 3000 B.C. the Sumerians had developed a wedge‑shaped writing called cuneiform. The signs were pressed into small clay tablets with a reed and then dried in the sun or baked. Other Near Eastern peoples adapted the Sumerian signs. The Sumerians used a sexagesimal system of counting. Ten was the basic number, sixty the next, and then six hundred. A lunar year of 12 months was devised. It contained 354 days. The Sumerians developed a system of weights and measures. It was based on the mina which weighed a we more than a pound. Civil law was first compiled by the Sumerians, and provided a basis for the subsequent Hammurabi Code. The lex talionis principle of proportionate retaliation was a feature of Sumerian law. The Sumerians left an extensive literature in the form of epics, hymns, and proverbs. Many were copied by the later Babylonians. The Gilgamesh Epic, a tale reminiscent of Noah, is one of the great Sumerian literary contributions. The Babylonian Creation Epic is somewhat similar to the Hebrew account found in Genesis. The Sumerians and their successors were polytheistic, their faith offered no hope of resurrection. The Sumerians did not mummify the dead or build elaborate tombs for them. Sumerian deities had all of the strengths and weaknesses of mortals. The Sumerian religion did not demand definitive standards of morality from its adherents.

A signature seal and its impression, showing a Sumerian ruler in audience with his local god. Sumerian harp with gold bulls head

Marduk replaced Tammuz as the leader of the gods during the Amorite (Babylonian) period. The vault, arch, and dome were all inventions of the Sumerians. Their best known structure was the ziggurat, a pyramidal tower with a shrine at the top. In the absence of stone, sun‑dried brick was used. Sculpture and metal work were two additional areas in which Sumerian artisans excelled.

Egyptian Civilization

The land of Egypt was concentrated along a 550‑mile stretch of the Nile valley. The average width of the cultivable land was but 12 miles. In all, Egypt had only 13,000 square miles of good soil to support a population of 7 million. On both sides of the Nile valley was desert. This made for a compact society in the river valley. Egyptian civilization emerged into the light of history during the fourth millennium BC. Its 3000‑year history during the ancient period was divided into thirty dynasties by the historian Manetho (c. 280 BC).

The Predynastic Period (4000‑3200 BC) During these eight centuries the Egyptians developed a system of writing, an irrigation network, a calendar, and a system of government. Egypt was divided into nomes or provinces. Each was governed by a nomarch who collected taxes, rendered justice, and commanded the local militia. The various nomarchs quarrelled among themselves like so many feudal princes.

The Protodynastic Period (3200‑2750 BC) Around 3100 BC the legendary Menes supposedly united Upper and Lower Egypt. Some internal conflict continued until the founding of the Third Dynasty by Khasekemui in 2980 BC.

The Old Kingdom. (2750‑2270 BC) Dynasties III‑VI ruled Egypt from the city of Memphis. This was the era of pyramid building. These structures reached the peak of magnificence during the Fourth Dynasty, particularly the Great Pyramid of Cheops at Gizeh. The first pyramid was probably built during the reign of Zoser by his adviser Imhotep. During this period the Pharaohs had almost absolute authority. Egypt reached its greatest size during the reign of Pepi II, but the weak rulers of the Sixth Dynasty lost control after his death. Ra, the sun deity, headed the Egyptian pantheon. The First Intermediate Period (2270‑2160 BC): this was a feudal age. The nobility was able to assert itself during the chaotic century that ensued. Dynasties VII‑X ruled as the cities of Memphis, Heracleopolis, and Thebes fought for the leadership of the Nile valley.

Duck hunting for this Egyptian is a matter of decoying the ducks from his papyrus boat and hitting them with his boomerang

An Egyptian princess is having her hair set in tight curls, holds a mirror, beverage in the other, servant fixes her another .

Osiris sits in judgment as his dog-headed creature weighs the heart of a: princess against a feather. Isis stands behind the princess.

Theban wall painting of ceremonial farewell to the dead, on tomb of two Egyptian sculptors.

The Hypostyle Hall of the Temple of Karnak, showing Clerestrory Windows (reconstruction)

Portrait of Pharaoh Ramses II Stone block statue of the Pharaoh Khafre

Egyptian Dancing Girls (wall painting) An Egyptian collar of beads

Middle Kingdom (2160‑1788 BC) Order was restored when the Eleventh Dynasty of Thebes was able to win control of Egypt. The patron deity of Thebes, Amun, became identified with Ra as head of the Egyptian pantheon. The Middle Kingdom reached its apex under Dynasty XII, particularly Pharaohs like Senwosret II and III. This was the classical period of Egyptian literary achievement. Painting and sculpture flourished. Trade with Syria and Punt was extensive. In addition, irrigation was pushed and a dam built in the Fayuni area to store water in the event that the Nile was low.

Second Intermediate Period (1788‑1680 BC) This was another feudal period during which chaotic conditions existed. The weak Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties were the nominal rulers.

The Hyksos Era (1680‑1580 BC) The Hyksos were probably Syrian and Palestinian Semites driven south into Egypt by Indo‑European peoples from north of the Black and Caspian Seas. They were called "shepherd kings" or "rulers of foreign lands." Their invasion ended 2000 years of Egyptian isolation. After this attack, Egypt played an important role in Near Eastern affairs. Avaris, in Lower Egypt, became the Hyksos capital. Upper Egypt sent tribute to the Hyksos, but that area remained unoccupied. The Hyksos readily adopted Egyptian culture and the old state administration. The horse and chariot were brought to Egypt by the Hyksos. The Hyksos were expelled by Ahmose I of Thebes, founder of Dynasty XVII.

The New Empire‑(1580‑1090 BC) Ahmose I pursued the Hyksos into Asia and laid the foundation for the Egyptian expansion that followed. Under Thutmose 1 (1525‑1508 BC) Palestine and Syria were temporarily overrun. The great Thutmose 111 (1501‑1447 BC) crushed the Kadesh Confederacy and made Egyptian authority paramount in Syria and Palestine. Egypt reached the pinnacle of her power during the "golden age" of Amenhotep III (1411‑1375 BC). During the reign of Amenhotep IV (Ikhnaton) decline became evident. The Pharaoh did nothing to meet the new Hittite challenge. Amenhotep IV created an internal rift by experimenting with the monotheistic Aton faith. Ramses 11 (1292‑1225 BC) managed to hold his decaying state together despite the ambush at Kadesh by the Hittites (1288 BC) The New Empire came to an end in 1090 BC when the priest Hrihor founded Dynasty XXI,

The Period of Decline (1090‑525 BC) This was an era of weak kings and powerful priests. Libyan and Ethiopian invaders often ruled the land. A short Assyrian occupation occurred in the seventh century BC. Saite Revival (663‑525 BC) Began under Psamtik I who expelled the Assyrians. The culture of the period was a slavish imitation of past accomplishments. Cambyses and his Persian armies conquered Egypt in 525 BC.

Egyptian cultural and economic accomplishments

As early as 4241 BC the Egyptians may have worked out a calendar. The people of the Nile valley developed several systems of writing prior to the advent of the Fourth Dynasty. These included hieroglyphics, a sacred form of writing that included 600 signs. The use of the Rosetta Stone plus other materials enabled Champollion to decipher this language. A cursive script called hieratic was developed at a later time. It was used for public and commercial affairs. The commoners of Egypt came to use a still more abbreviated script called demotic Egyptian literature reached a zenith during the Middle Kingdom with such works as The Shipwrecked Sailor and The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. Sculpture became conventionalized by the Middle Kingdom. Statues had to have arms at the sides and the left foot thrust forward. The Medical Papyri indicate that the Egyptians were making some progress in the art of healing. These New Empire records contain many worthless remedies, but they were the first documents in which medical data was assembled. Significant advances were also made in geometry, astronomy, and chemistry.

Old Kingdom religious beliefs centered about the immortality of the Pharaoh. This solar faith did not grant a life in the next world to the masses. During the Middle Kingdom the people were able to reach this exalted state because of the god Osiris. Ra and Osiris vied for supremacy. The Egyptian religion placed no emphasis on an ethical life. Prayers and magical formulae from the Book of the Dead were sold by priests. These could appease Osiris, and help insure immortality.

Egypt developed an extensive trade with Syria, Crete, and Punt during the Middle Kingdom. Wheat, gold wares, and linen were exported. Ivory, cedar wood, tapestries, and ebony were imported. Copper mining, tanning, stone quarrying, and bronze making were important local industries. Agriculture was the basic occupation of most Egyptians.

The Empire of the Hittites

The Hittites emanated from central and southeastern Asia Minor, present‑day Turkey. Agriculture and shepherding were their main occupations. They were the first to smelt iron in quantity. The chief deity of the Hittites was Teshub, but the sun goddess Arinna also had a place of prominence. The Hittite king derived his authority from a council of nobles called the pankus. By 1500 BC. the Hittites had developed a legal code noted for its humane features. The Hittites spoke an Indo‑European language. It was deciphered by the Czech scholar Hrozny. After 1900 BC the Hittites began to press south into Syria from their citadel at Hattusas. Under Mursilis 1 (1620‑1590 BC) the loose confederation of city‑states was changed into a powerful empire. Egyptian power in Syria was challenged by the Hittites until the Mitanni brought about a temporary eclipse of their power (1500‑1375 BC). Shubbiluliuma (1375‑1335 BC) again brought a revived Hittite empire into conflict with Egypt. The continual invasions of the Sea Peoples resulted in the destruction of the Hittite realm around 1190 BC.

Other Near Eastern States (2000‑1200 BC)

The Elamites This people was subject to Sumerian and Akkadian rule during most of the third millennium BC. For a brief period around 2000 BC the Elamites pressed into Mesopotamia from the cast, but were later beaten by Hammurabi and the Amorites. Most of our evidence for the study of Elamite history has come from the capital city of Shusan (Susa

The Kassites This Indo‑European group moved into the Tigris‑Euphrates valley from the Iranian highlands to the east around 1677 BC. The Kassite attack was led by Gandash. Amorite resistance was quickly overcome. It is believed that the Kassites brought the horse to Mesopotamia. The Kassites waged a war against the Hittites under Agum II. By 1169 BC Assyrian, Median, Babylonian, and Elamite pressure put an end to the Kassite kingdom.

The Hurrians This Armenoid people probably came ‑from the Lake Van region of present day Turkey. Around 1800 B.C. they migrated southward and overran parts of Syria and Palestine. They probably brought the horse‑drawn chariot into western Asia. Their language may be related to that of the Elamites. The chief deities of the Hurrians were Teshub, the storm god, and Hepa, the sun goddess. It is likely that the Hurrians were absorbed by other peoples of Syria and Palestine.

The Mitanni The Mitanni occupied an area that included much of northern Syria and Mesopotamia (1500 BC). Under Sauslishattar, the Mitanni held off the Egyptian forces of Thutmose III and kept the Assyrians in subjugation. By 1300 BC the rising state of Assyria crushed the Mitanni. Soon thereafter the kingdom disappeared.

The Era of Small States (1200‑800 BC)

With the decline of Egyptian and Hittite power after 1200 BC, the Near East entered an era notable for the absence of great powers.

Hittite Lydian Phrygian

The Phrygians It is believed that the Phrygians came to Asia Minor from eastern Greece around 1200 BC. They settled in central Anatolia (Turkey) west of the Halys River. Phrygian power was great from 900 to about 547 BC, although it waned perceptibly after their defeat by the Lydians in 610 BC. Because of their location and Greek background, the Phrygians were able to transmit many Asiatic ideas and practices to the peoples of the Mediterranean. Cybele, the Great Mother, was the chief deity of the Phrygians. She headed the Phrygian fertility cult that was known for its wild ceremonies and dances.

The Ludians This people occupied western Asia Minor, holding the territory between Phrygia to the east and the Ionian coastal towns to the west. Lydia was an important power from the eighth to the sixth century BC. Gyges founded the famous Mernmadae Dynasty in 670 BC, but the Persians under Cyrus overran Lydia in 547 BC by seizing King Croesus in the capital city of, Sardis. The Lydians were excellent craftsmen and merchants. They are credited with the invention of metal coins. The Lydians made contributions in music and dancing. They also excelled in weaving and purple dyeing.

The Arameans This Semitic people came out of the Syrian desert in the fourteenth century BC. The Hittites and Assyrians prevented them from entering the Tigris valley a century later. An Aramean kingdom was organized around Damascus in the tenth century BC. Other Arameans drifted into Mesopotamia in considerable numbers. The Arameans were noted for their ability in international trade. Their language was used everywhere in the Near East.

The Phoenicians This nation of sea‑traders lived in the excellent coastal ports along what is now the shore of Lebanon. The main Phoenician cities were Acre, Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. After the decline of Minoan and Mycenaean seapower in the twelfth century BC, the Phoenicians succeeded in dominating the commercial life of the Mediterranean. Phoenician colonies were established in Carthage, Cyprus, and southern Spain. The greatest Phoenician contribution to civilization was their alphabet. It had 22 consonants and no vowels, and may have been based on Egyptian signs. It has become the basis for most ancient and modern I alphabets. For the better part of the period 1500‑1300 BC Phoenicia was dominated by Egypt. From 1000‑774 BC the city of Tyre took the lead, but this was followed by a century and a half of Assyrian domination.

Phoenician coast Phoenician carved ivory Early metal artistry

The Hebrews This Semitic people migrated from Egypt to Palestine around 1200 BC. As told in Exodus, the Hebrew entrance into Palestine involved the subjugation of the Canaanites. Moses led the Hebrews to Palestine and must be given credit for welding them together as a nation.

Period of the judges (c. 1200‑1030 BC) This was the era from the Exodus to the reign of Saul. The twelve Hebrew tribes formed a loose confederation. In times of war certain leaders such as Samson, Gideon, or Samuel took charge. Collectively, they are known as judges. The judges acquired a temporary judicial and military authority. The rise of Saul as king of the Hebrews ended this era.

Under Saul (1030‑1005 BC) and David (1005‑965 BC) the Philistines, Edomites, and Moabites were brought under control. A sense of national consciousness developed. The Hebrew kingdom reached its greatest size under David.

Under Solomon (965‑925 BC) the Hebrews made alliances with Egypt and Tyre. A great building program was inaugurated at Jerusalem. Heavy taxation and forced labor made the regime unpopular. After Solomon's death the Hebrew kingdom split into a southern state of Judah and a northern state of Israel.

The kingdom of Israel continued to exist for two centuries until the Assyrians under Sargon II crushed it in 722 BC.

Judah managed to maintain its independence until 586 B.C. when the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar seized Jerusalem. Many Hebrews were taken to Mesopotamia in the so‑called Babylonian Captivity (586‑538 BC). The Persian ruler Cyrus permitted the Hebrews to return to Palestine in 538 BC. The Hebrews remained under Achaemenid rule until Alexander the Great conquered the area in 332 BC.

Kingdom of Israel

Hebrew religion It was here that the Hebrews made their greatest contribution. The Hebrew faith emphasized the belief in one supreme deity, monotheism. Yahweh was the one god of the Hebrews. The Hebrew religion demanded an adherence to ethical standards. Such prophets as Amos and Ezra often called the leaders and populace to task for lax moral behavior. The Torah or Pentateuch (Five Books of Moses) contained the teachings of God as revealed through the prophets or discovered by the sages. Ezra must be given credit for giving the Torah its position of importance. Its 613 commandments provided the Hebrews with a rigid code of personal and ritualistic behavior. It is believed that much of the Torah may date from the Hebrew trek through Sinai. The Hebrew faith had a great influence on several religions that emerged at a later time. Christianity, for example, borrowed much of its theology as well as the Ten Commandments.

Assyrian Dominance in the Near East

The Assyrians lived in the northeast corner of the Fertil Crescent. Their key Centers were Assur, Arbela and Nineveh. Prior to 1300 BC the Assyrians were dominated by the Sumerians, Akkadians, Elamites, and Amorites. Assyna expansion began with the reign of Adadnirari (1310-1280 BC). Hittite, Egyptian, and Kassite decline were important factors in the rise of Assyria. After two centuries of temporary decline (1100‑885 BC) the Assyrians began a period of revival by reorganizing their army and government. Two hundred years of expansion followed with the zenith of power being reached under Sargron II (722‑705 BC). After the death of Assurbanipal in 626 BC decline came quickly. The Babylonians and Medes razed Nineveh in 612 BC, and Assyrian military power was permanently destroyed.

Assyrians Scenes

Lion hunt from Assurbanipal’s Palace argon II Fortress Palace at Khorsaban (reconstruction)

Assyrian civilization The Assyrian army was the key institution. Its Prussian like efficiency made it the terror of the Near East. The army committed fearful atrocities during its conquests. Most Assyrians were engaged in agriculture. Many peasants were serfs. Commerce and industry were ignored by the dominant nobility. The chief deity of the Assyrians was Assur, a god that fought beside their soldiers in battle. The Assyrians had no belief in a hereafter. Although the Assyrians did not generally excel in the arts, they did some fine work in stone sculpture and palace building. Assurbanipal also compiled a library of 22,000 cuneiform tablets at Nineveh.

Winged Bull from Sargon’s Palace

The Rise of Chaldea

The Chaldeans were a Semitic people who settled in southern Mesopotamia. They organized the Neo‑Babylonian Empire under Nabopolassar (625‑605 BC). In alliance with the Medes, the Chaldeans crushed the Assyrians and razed Nineveh in 612 BC. Under Nebuchadnezzar (605‑562 BC) the Chaldeans reached their pinnacle. Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine were subjugated. The famous Hanging Gardens and Ishtar Gate adorned the city of Babylon. After Nebuchadnezzar's death decline was rapid. The Persians under Cyrus seized Babylon in 539 BC.

Chaldean civilization The Chaldeans identified their deities with the planets. Marduk, for example, was linked to Jupiter. Deities could no longer be influenced by man. The gods were all‑powerful, but their intentions were unknown. Since the desires of the deities could not be learned, the Chaldeans fatalistically submitted themselves to the will of the gods. Like their Sumerian predecessors, the Chaldeans had no interest in the hereafter. The Chaldeans prayed for material betterment on earth. They were not particularly interested in ethical values.

Chaldean science The Chaldeans could boast of many important achievements, particularly in astronomy. Chaldean astronomers worked out a 7‑day week and a 24‑hour day. The study of astronomy was motivated by the Chaldean desire to better understand the wishes of the gods. The Chaldeans showed no particular originality in literature or the other arts.

Imperial Persia and Her Civilization

The Persians were an Aryan people who came to Iran from the east around 650 BC. For a considerable period the Persians were subjected to Mede overlordship, but the successful revolt of Cyrus around 550 BC ended that state of affairs. Cyrus founded the Achaemenid Dynasty (559‑331 BC) which lasted until its destruction by Alexander the Great. By 539 BC Cyrus had conquered Chaldea, Lydia, Syria, and Palestine. His successor, Cambyses (529‑522 BC), added Egypt to the Persian domains.

Under Darius (521‑485 BC) the empire was reorganized on a more efficient basis. The empire was divided into administrative districts called satrapies. A satrap, or governor, ruled ear district. The satrap was kept under close observation by nth officials of the king. This procedure was effective on] during the reign of a strong ruler like Darius. Darius' plans to crush Greece were made known toward the end of his reign. He was angered by the aid the Geeks gave to the cities of Ionia. His first attempt failed in 492 B.C. because a storm destroyed the expedition. Darius made a second try in 490 BC, but the Athenians defeated his forces at Marathon.

Xerxes (485‑465 BC) continued the campaign against Hellas. Persia suffered a crushing naval defeat at Salamis in 480 BC. Her land forces were beaten decisively at Plataea in 479 BC. The Greek war dragged on for three additional decades until it was officially ended by the Peace of Cimon in 449 BC. After Xerxes, Persian power and prestige sank to a new low. Intrigue and internal strife (Satrap's War) were responsible. Persia became a ripe target for the ambitious Alexander the Great.

These old men are subjects from Syria on the .other side of the Fertile Crescent, bringing gifts to the emperor at Persepolis - gold vessels, bracelets, horses, even a chariot. This relief decorated a wall of Xerxes' palace at Perspolis.

Persian civilization

The Zoroastrian religion The Persians permitted the worship of deities other than the Zoroastrian. Zoroastrian dualism made Ahura‑Mazda the personification of good, while Ahriman represented all that was evil. These two deities were engaged in a battle for supremacy, but Ahura‑Mazda would win in the end. The Zoroastrian faith predicted the coming of a judgment day. The Zoroastrian faithful believed that a messiah, Saoshyant, would come prior to the end of this world. Zoroastrianism demanded an ethical and temperate life. It was a revealed faith whose secrets were received by Zoroaster from Ahura‑Mazda. Many tenets and ideas were recorded in the sacred Avesta.

The Persian Empire was divided into 20 satrapies for administrative purposes. Excellent roads serviced this vast empire. Particularly important was the royal road between Susa and Sardis. Because of the excellent network of roads, a fine postal system existed. Most Persians were peasants. They were ruled by a powerful nobility. Important cities were few in number. Susa was the capital, but Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Ecbatana were also important. Palace building was one of the few architectural achievements of the Persians. The arch was not used. The Persians did little original work in art. They borrowed heavily from the Babylonians, Hittites, and Egyptians.

The ruined palace of Xerxes at Persepolis, showing columns and typical palace platform.